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THE   KAISER 


Germany  of  the  Germans 


By 

Robert  M.   Berry 


Of     -ryif      ^ 

UNIVERSITY 

Of 


NEW    YORK 
CHARLES   SCRIBNER'S   SONS 
153-157  Fifth   Avenue 
1910 


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PREFACE 

The  object  of  this  book  is  not  to  deal  with  the  history  of  the 
German  Empire,  but  to  draw  for  the  reader  a  simple  pen- 
picture  of  the  German  nation  as  it  is  to-day — the  Germany 
of  the  Germans.  It  is  not  the  intention  of  the  author  to 
criticise  ruler,  people,  constitution  or  institutions,  but  to  give 
the  result  of  many  years'  personal  observation.  He  has  had 
the  advantage  of  working  with  German  workmen,  studying 
with  the  students,  participating  in  the  national  sports,  joining 
in  the  people's  amusements,  watching  their  politics,  marching 
with  their  soldiers,  coming  in  close  contact  with  their  officials, 
and  paying  their  taxes — in  fact,  he  has  lived  in  north,  south, 
east  and  west,  in  town  and  in  country,  the  life  of  the  people 
as  far  as  a  foreigner  is  able  to  do  so. 

Comparisons  with  the  peoples  and  institutions  of  other 
nations  have  not  been  introduced  into  the  book.  The  facts 
are  given  :   the  reader  is  left  to  draw  his  own  conclusions. 

Statistics  have  been  avoided  wherever  possible,  but  in 
some  instances  it  has  been  absolutely  necessar}^  to  give  figures 
in  order  to  explain  the  subject  under  discussion.  In  these 
cases  the  most  reliable  authorities  have  been  consulted  either 
through  books  or  personally. 

It  has  been  the  endeavour  of  the  author  to  avoid  the  use 
of  foreign  expressions  throughout  the  book,  and,  where  an 
exact  rendering  of  a  title  or  the  name  of  an  institution  would 
be  confusing  to  English  readers,  he  has  given  the  nearest 
English  equivalent. 

The  book  undoubtedly  contains  imperfections,  which  may 
give  rise  to  criticism ;  but  any  errors  that  have  been  made 
have  been  committed  in  good  faith. 


211806 


CONTENTS 


CHAP. 

I.  INTRODUCTION        . 

II.  WILLIAM  II  AS   EMPEROR 

III.  THE   IMPERIAL  CONSTITUTION 

IV.  PRUSSIA'S   PREPONDERANCE 
V.  IMPERIAL   PARLIAMENT 

VI.  OFFICIALDOM 

VII.  THE  ARMY  IS  THE   NATION 

VIII.  THE   NAVY    . 

IX.  THE   "  AGE  OF  YOUTH  '* 

X.  INTELLECTUAL  HOTHOUSES 

XI.  THE  BATTLEFIELD   OF  CREEDS 

XII.  THE  LETTER  OF  THE  LAW 

XIII.  ABOUT  THE   POOR 

XIV.  A  GENERATION   AHEAD   IN   INSURANCE 
XV.  THE   PROBLEM   OF  THE   UNEMPLOYED 

XVI.  THE   GREAT  INDUSTRIAL  MOVEMENT 

XVII.  MODEL  FORESTERS  .  .  . 

XVIII.  THE  TEMPERANCE  MOVEMENT 

XIX.  THE  SPORTING  SPIRIT    . 

XX.  woman's  POSITION  AND   PROSPECTS 

XXI.  LITERARY  SEARCHINGS 

XXII.  THE  PRESS  AND  ITS  INFLUENCE 

XXIII.  "  INTENSE  "   MUSIC 

XXIV.  DRAMATIC  FARE    . 
XXV.  ART  AND  ARCHITECTURE 

XXVI.  PHILOSOPHY  AND  CULTURE 

XXVII.  MUNICIPAL  ACTIVITIES  . 

XXVIII.  LIFE  AND  SOME  CUSTOMS 

Ti 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


THE   KAISER 


THE   BATTLESHIP        HANOVER 

ROYAL  PALACE,   POTSDAM 

COUNT  ZEPPELIN 

THE   CROWN   PRINCE  . 

THE   REICHSTAG 

HERR-  VON-  BETHMANN-HOLLWEG 

ADMIRAL  VON   TIRPITZ 

THE   BATTLESHIP   "  NASSAU  " 

A   FUTURE   KAISER       . 

PULPIT,   TRIER  CATHEDRAL 

CHAPEL  OF  ST.    URSULA,   COLOGNE 

EMPEROR   STREET,    FREIBURG 

THE   DOCKS,    HAMBURG 

BARONESS    VON  BOHLEN   (N^E   KRUPP) 

A   GERMAN  TYPE 

THE   KAISERIN   AND   HER  DAUGHTER 

HERMANN  SUDERMANN 

THE   BUCHHANDLERHAUS,   LEIPZIG 

EMMA   DESTINN 

GERARD   HAUPTMANN 

LUDWIG  VON   KNAUS 

PORTA   NIGRA,   TRIER 

THE  CATHEDRAL,    MAYENCE 

THE   CATHEDRAL,   FREIBURG 

ERNST  HEINRICH   HAECKEL . 

TOWN  HALL,   FREIBURG 

GUILD   HOUSE,    RATISBON      . 

VIEW  OF  BERLIN 

ST.    SEBALDUS'   SHRINE,    NUREMBERG 

MARKET  PLACE,   FREIBURG  . 

vii 


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^     Of   TH€ 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


Germany   of  the   Germans 


CHAPTER   I 

INTRODUCTION 


"  These  people  are  wonderfully  methodical !  "  is  a  phrase 
often  uttered  by  the  foreigner  visiting  Germany  for  the  first 
time.    Without  knowing  it,  he  has  hit  on  the 
Method         principal    reason    of    Germany's    prosperity. 
Signs  of  method   and   discipline   are   visible 
on  every  hand.     Well-ordered  progress  is  apparent  every- 
where— not  that  frenzied,  demonstrative  progress  observable 
in  newer  countries,  but  an  organized  forward  movement  in 
which  every  detail  seems  to  have  been  well  considered  and 
nothing  left  to  chance. 

When  a  deeper  knowledge  has  been  obtained  of  the  country 
and  the  people — the  Germany  of  the  Germans — the  foreigner 
is  no  longer  surprised  at  the  nation's  unceasing  march  towards 
the  front  rank  of  civilised  countries.  Perseverance,  education, 
knowledge  of  their  strength,  ambition,  have  all  united  to  urge 
the  German  people  forward. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  in  the  past  forty  years  their 
concentrated  efforts  have  carried  them  onward  to  such  a 
position  in  trade,  in  power,  and  in  the  develop- 
Germany        ment  of  systematized  care  for  their  own  welfare 
Dreaming.       that  other  nations,  who  formerly  looked  on 
Germany  as  only  a  land  of  dreamers,  have 
been  compelled  to  come  to  the  conclusion  that,  instead  of 
dreaming,  she  was  wide  awake,  thinking  quietly  and  method- 
ically.    Now  that  she  has  put  the  result  of  her  thought  into 
effect,  the  other  nations  have  to  content  themselves  with 
following,  in  many  directions,  the  way  she  has  thought  out, 
with  the  disadvantage  of  having  to  give  her  a  start  in  the  race. 

1 


2  Germany  of  the  Germans 

In  whatever  part  of  the  Empire  one  finds  oneself,  the  fact 

becomes  immediately  apparent  that  the  most  modern  methods 

are  utilized  in  both  public  and  private  enter- 

tion,  and  to  this  study  of  detail  much  of  the 
extraordinary  progress  which  has  been  attained  is  to  be 
attributed. 

The  marvellous  organisation  and  method,  which  count  for 
so  much  to  the  nation,  are  an  outcome  of  the  formation  of  the 
Empire  four  decades  ago.  The  many  small  States  into  which 
Germany  is  divided  suffered,  before  their  union  into  a  federal 
bond,  from  all  kinds  of  petty  jealousies,  as  well  as  from  the 
varied  systems  in  vogue.  Development  was  in  this  way 
greatly  retarded. 

Since  the  creation  of  the  Empire,  with  a  central  government 
to  watch  over  its  greater  world-interests,  and  with  the  strong 

directing  hand  of  the  administrative  system 
Vinhty  of  the    borrowed  from  Prussia — the  paramount  State 

of  the  federation — extended  to  all  parts  of  the 
country,  the  overflowing  virility  of  the  people,  instead  of  being 
dribbled  away  in  constant  internal  bickerings,  has  been 
directed  into  its  proper  channel,  and  the  power  hitherto 
wasted  has  been  utilized  to  develop  the  vast  natural  resources 
of  the  country. 

Certainly,  not  all  the  administrative  system  taken  from 
Prussia  calls  for  admiration.  The  interference  of  the  authori- 
ties in  petty  details  of  private  life,  which  in  other  countries 
are  left  to  the  good  sense  of  the  people,  is  felt  by  the  Germans 
themselves,  with  all  their  inborn  instinct  of  submission  to  the 
powers  that  be,  to  go  sometimes  to  extreme  lengths. 
The  ubiquity  of  the  police  is  very  striking  and  impresses 

itself   on  the  foreigner  as  one  of  the  most 
Ubrquitv        objectionable  features  of  German  life.     The 

fact  that  one  can  only  obtain  a  cab  at  a 
railway  station  through  a  policeman,  the  personal  reporting 
of   arrivals    to  the    police,    and    the    registration    of    the 


Introduction  3 

engagement  or  dismissal  of  a  servant  girl  at  the  police  station, 
and  other  matters  of  a  like  nature  might  pass  without  remark, 
but  when  a  policeman  in  full  uniform  and  armed  with  a  sabre 
enters  your  private  apartment  to  inquire  about  your  religious 
belief,  then  police  interference  becomes  objectionable. 

The  fact  that  the  policeman's  helmet  and  sabre  are  the  most 
conspicuous  objects  on  the  platform  of  a  political  meeting, 
which  he  can  disperse  at  a  moment's  notice  should  he  imagine 
a  speaker  is  expressing  his  arguments  in  an  objectionable  way 
to  the  Government,  of  course  does  not  affect  the  foreigner  to 
any  great  extent. 

The  policeman's  word  is  law  everywhere.  Right  or  wrong, 
the  public  must  obey  him.  Complaint  as  to  the  injustice 
of  his  action  is  virtually  useless.  The  Government  undertakes 
entire  responsibility  for  all  his  acts,  legal  or  illegal,  while  he 
is  on  duty. 

Much  the  same  may  be  said  in  regard  to  most  Government 

and  municipal  officials.     They  in  many  cases,   among  the 

lower  ranks,   act  as  though  they  were  the 

^^tUers*^^  rulers  by  some  kind  of  divine  right,  and  woe 
be  to  a  member  of  the  public  who  expresses 
his  disapproval ! 

It  must  be  said  that  the  higher  ranks  of  officials  are,  in 
the  majority  of  instances,  extremely  obliging.  They  are 
men  of  the  highest  education  who  have  behind  them  the  long 
traditions  of  the  Prussian  administration,  which  has  always 
been  noted  for  its  uprightness  and  faithfulness  to  duty. 

As  to  the  military  cult — that  stands  by  itself.     The  soldier's 

uniform  is  honoured  by  Germans  more  than  by  the  people 

of  any  other  nation.     The  officer  occupies  a 

^^^C^lt^^^^  privileged  position,  which  is  inviolable  by  the 
civil  authorities.  He  takes  precedence  every- 
where. How  highly  the  military  stand  in  the  estimation  of 
the  ruler  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that,  when  the 
Imperial  Chancellor  happens  to  be  chosen  from  among  the 
civilians,  he  is  at  once  given  a  rank  in  the  Army,  so  that  he 


4  Germany  of  the  Germans 

may  wear  the  uniform,  the  usual  diplomatic  uniform  not  being 
regarded  as  bearing  such  a  high  value.  This  was  done  in  the 
case  of  Bismarck,  Caprivi  and  Biilow,  and  now  Bethmann- 
Hollweg  has  received  the  appointment  he  has  been  made 
a  major  as  a  first  step.  All  of  these  four  Chancellors  when 
they  performed  their  service  in  the  Army  did  so  as  one-year 
volunteers. 

The  German  from  his  earliest  years  is  educated  in  patriotism. 

His  school  songs  are  martial ;    he  is  given  holidays  on  the 

anniversaries  of  great  victories  ;   he  is  taught 

Patriotism       history  mostly  by  references  to  wars  in  which 

the  nation  has  participated ;    when  he  walks 

abroad   he   finds   everywhere   monuments   of   generals   and 

marshals ;    his  picture  galleries  are  full  of  battle  pictures ; 

he  is  taught  to  doff  his  hat  to  the  flag  whenever  he  passes  it  ; 

the  soldier  is  held  up  to  him  as  the  pattern  which  he  should 

follow. 

A  remarkable  phenomenon  in  a  nation  where  education 
and  ability  are  so  widespread  is  the  fact  that  the  development 
of  the  political  instinct  of  the  people  has  been  so  slow.  They 
make  use,  it  is  true,  of  their  right  to  vote  for  members  of 
the  Imperial  Parliament,  for  which  universal  manhood 
suffrage  obtains  ;  but  there  their  interest  in  poHtical  matters 
ends,  and  they  are  content  to  accept  with  little  comment 
the  legislation  made  for  them  by  Ministers  not  responsible 
to  the  nation,  and  not  chosen  from  its  elected  representa- 
tives. Hitherto  this  apathy  has  not  apparently  injured  the 
people's  interests,  for  the  new  laws  enacted  have  in  most 
cases  introduced  reforms  which  have  benefited  the  whole 
nation. 

There  is  in  some  quarters  a  very  strong  argument  urged 

against  this  system  of  paternal  government. 

Government      namely,  that    it  destroys  individuality  and 

takes  away  the  personal  will  of  the  people. 

They  become  so  used  to  obeying  orders  that  they  cannot  think 

for  themselves  in  politics.     Spontaneity  is  not  requisite  for 


Introduction  5 

them.  The  Government  sees  to  all  things  :  the  people  only 
need  to  do  what  they  are  told.  Perhaps,  it  is  argued,  equally 
good  and  even  better  results  in  the  way  of  popular  thrift  and 
laws  could  be  attained  if  the  people  were  taught  to  think  for 
themselves. 

One  of  the  most  striking  features  of  German  Hfe  is  that  the 
people  have  so  little  understanding  of  the  way  in  which  they 
are  governed.  In  other  things  the  German  can  recite  long 
lists  of  data  without  the  slightest  hesitation,  but  in  poHtics 
he  replies  with  a  blank  look  when  questioned.  It  has  never 
impressed  him  as  necessary  that  he  should  comprehend 
politics.  He  is  governed — as  a  rule  well :  that  is  sufficient 
for  him. 

The  national  character  cannot  easily  be  summed  up  in  a  few 

words,  for  in  north,  south,  east  and  west  exist  many  different 

traits.   It  may,  however,  be  said  of  the  people 

National  f   ^^   ^^     federated  States  that   they   are 

Character.  ,         .  ,  i  -i  t_ 

mdustrious,  honest  and  earnest ;  while  on  the 

other  side  of  the  slate  they  are  generally  greatly  inclined 
to  bully  anyone  they  consider  inferior  and  abase  themselves 
before  anyone  a  step  higher  in  the  social  scale.  This  latter 
failing  seems,  unfortunately,  to  extend  with  the  spread  of 
Prussian  influence  over  the  other  States. 

The  struggle  for  prosperity,  as  has  been  seen,  takes  a  larger 

place  in   German   thought   than   party   politics.     The  men 

engaged   in   trade   and   commerce   are   most 

P^ofperity"^     enlightened  and  full  of  worldly  knowledge. 

This   they    apply   to    business,    which    they 

conduct  with  intense  energy,  common-sense,  and  practicality. 

More  especially  among  the  working  classes,  where  hard 
work  and  little  play  are  the  rule,  the  necessity  for  tenacity 
and  striving  towards  improvement  is  fully  recognised.  Imbued 
with  the  spirit  of  discipline  during  their  service  in  the  Army, 
they  carry  it  with  them  to  their  work  and  their  trades  unions. 
Their  leaders  are  wide  awake  to  the  terrific  struggle  going  on 
between  the  nations  in  the  search  for  trade.    They  never 


6  Germany  of  the  Germans 

cease  to  drive  home  to  the  workmen  the  benefits  of  temperance 
in  making  them  better  able  to  attain  efficiency  in  their  work. 
They  also  encourage  them  to  attend  in  their  spare  time  the 
technical  trade  classes  which  are  such  a  feature  of  German 
education. 

This  subject  of  education  is  dealt  with  in  Germany  in  a  way 
that   is   wonderfully   efficient.     It   leaves   doubts   in   many 

people's  minds,  however,  as  to  whether  the 
Elation        ^^*  system  has  been  adopted,  for,  although 

it  is  aimed  at  providing  the  most  thorough 
training  of  the  pupil  for  the  walk  in  life  that  has  been  chosen, 
it  appears  to  impose  a  limit  on  opportunity. 

Specialisation  and  caste  feeling  are  carried  to  such  an 
extreme  limit  in  all  things  that  it  is  almost  impossible  for  any 
German  to  strike  out  and  take  up  any  position  except  that  for 
which  he  was  originally  destined.  The  workman's  son 
becomes  a  workman,  the  professional  man's  son  follows  in  his 
father's  footsteps,  the  Government  official's  son  almost  inevi- 
tably enters  a  Government  office,  the  officer's  son  expects 
nothing  more  than  to  become  an  officer,  while  the  scions  of 
nobility  would  not  expect  to  do  anything  but  serve  a  time 
as  officer  in  the  Guards  and  then  take  up  the  management  of 
their  estates  or  go  into  the  diplomatic  service. 

Professor  Ludwig  Bernhard,  a  leading  German  economist, 
recently  called  attention  in  the  course  of  an  address  to  the 

gulf  that  existed  between  the  working  classes 
^^ClSses^''^    in  the  German  Empire  and  the  rest  of  the 

nation.  He  declared  that  their  manner  of 
thought  was  so  different  that  they  gave  the  impression  of 
belonging  to  another  race  ;  yet  they  formed  the  greater 
proportion  of  the  nation  and  provided  the  majority  of  the 
Army.  The  intellectual  progress  of  the  Empire  certainly  had 
extended  to  the  working  class,  although  its  results  had  led  it 
in  a  different  direction,  and  the  workmen  now  had  their  own 
ideals,  history  and  traditions,  which  would  in  the  future 
without  doubt  play  an  important  part. 


Introduction  %^ 

While  the  bulk,  if  not  all,  of  the  middle  class  devote  them- 
selves to  trade  and  commerce  in  the  practical  way  that  is 
instilled  into  them  in  the  technical  schools, 
"^^Crust^^*^  leaving  intellectual  pursuits  for  their  leisure 
time,  which  is  very  scanty,  the  great  land- 
owners and  the  feudal  nobihty,  with  their  ultra-conservative 
traditions,  reside  as  a  rule  on  their  country  estates.  These 
are  sometimes  of  vast  extent  and  afford  them  wide  oppor- 
tunities for  the  display  of  the  talent  for  management  which 
seems  inherent  in  the  German. 

Germany  has  undoubtedly  become  a  power  which  must 

be  reckoned  with  in  the  future  progress  of  the  world.     In 

shipping,   industry  and  commerce,   she  has, 

Reckon^  With  ^^^^^^  to  her  hard-working,  well-disciphned, 
well-educated,  thrifty  population  of  over 
63,000,000,  already  taken  a  place  near  the  front. 

The  people  of  this  youthful  Empire,  despite  their  immense 
increase  of  wealth,  have  not  relaxed  one  iota  of  their  marvel- 
lous energy.  Indeed,  it  looks  as  though  their  inherent  strength 
and  vitaHty  are  only  now  being  stirred  to  still  further  effort. 

The  sudden  successes  which  led  to  the  foundation  of  the 
Empire  were  not  without  their  drawbacks,  for  they  found  the 
people  without  any  of  the  tact  and  diplomacy  so  necessary 
when  in  contact  with  other  races  and  other  Powers.  The 
acquisition  of  these  indispensable  attributes  is,  however,  only 
a  matter  of  time. 

No  false  impression  prevails  in  the  land  that  whatever 

the  nation  undertakes  it  will  be  able  to  accomplish.     The 

Germans,   however,   after   the   most   careful 

Thought  Out  preparation  and  forethought,  enter  upon  new 
ventures  with  the  utmost  confidence,  knowing 
that  they  stand  at  least  an  equal  chance  with  the  people  of 
any  other  nation. 

Sometimes  they  choose  a  wrong  way  to  attain  their  object, 
but  when  that  way  is  once  chosen  they  go  forward  without 
hesitation  and  often  pull  through  owing  to  their  discipline. 


8  Germany  of  the  Germans 

They  bear  with  equanimity  the  awful  burden  of  a  gigantic 

Army  and  a  rapidly  growing  Fleet,  as  they  feel  both  are 

necessary  to  maintain   the   position   of  the 

Ailment's!  Empire  in  the  world,  and  thus  to  bring  them 
more  opportunities  for  trade. 

With  their  growth  of  power,  they  have  lost  much  of  their 
former  simpHcity,  and  their  desire  for  more  comfort  and 
luxury  has  increased,  with  the  result  that  modern  German 
houses  may  now  be  regarded  as  among  the  most  convenient 
in  the  world.  The  cities  also  are  remarkably  well  organised, 
rationally  laid  out,  and  wonderfully  clean. 

Their  way  of  dealing  with  social  problems  has  aroused 
world-wide  admiration.  Here  again  the  ingrained  discipline 
of  the  people  has  had  its  effect.  Practically 
Probl  ms  every  working  person  accepts  with  good  grace 
the  enforcement  of  the  far-reaching  system 
of  thrift  which  was  introduced  by  Bismarck  in  an  effort  to 
stay  the  tide  of  Socialism.  The  compulsory  method  of  making 
provision  for  hard  times  has  not  had  its  feared  effect  of  dis- 
couraging private  thrift.  On  the  contrary,  the  people  seem 
to  have  gathered  encouragement  from  it  to  make  further 
efforts  of  their  own  in  the  same  direction,  as  the  immense 
figures  of  the  small  deposit  accounts  in  the  savings  banks 
show. 

The  guardianship  of  the  State  in  this  respect  has  effected 
much  in  delivering  the  working  classes  of  the  land  from  the 
horrible  nightmare  of  an  old  age  of  hopeless  privation  and 
dependence  on  others. 

The  remarkable  extension  of  scientific  learning  during  the 

past  thirty  or  forty  years  appears  to  have  had  a  deleterious 

effect  on  the  spiritual  condition  of  the  nation, 

?"t^Vjf^       which  exhibits  itself  in  a  notable  increase  of 
Learning.  ...  ,      , 

discontent     and     pessimism    in    regard    to 

religion.  Everything  connected  with  the  Church  is  the  subject 

of  discussion.     Nothing  is  perfect !     All  needs  changing  and 

reform.    These  criticisms  are  in  many  cases  justified,  for  the 


'iP^H 


Introduction  d 

old  fervent  religious  spirit  seems  to  have  died  out  of  the 
Church  itself,  and  it  offers  nothing  that  appeals  to  a  people 
that  has  always  had  a  longing  for  religion.  The  days  of 
Luther  seem  very  far  away  ! 

From  aU  classes,  whether  high  or  low,  arises  occasionally 
a  murmur  as  to  the  burden  of  taxation,  more  especially  when 
a  fresh  source  is  tapped  which  apparently  affects  one  class 
more  than  another.  When  the  heavy  sums  raised  by  the 
Empire  and  the  various  States  are  regarded,  it  must  be 
confessed  that  there  is  cause  for  muttering. 

The  Statistical  Department  has  drawn  up  a  list  of  the 

budgets  of  the  various  Federal  States  and  of  the  Empire  for 

the  year  1908,  according  to  which  the  States 

B  d    ts         expended    public    money   to   the   extent   of 

""  ^^  *        £270,500,000,  and  the  Empire  £147,650.000, 

altogether  £418,150,000,  part  of  which  sum  was  raised  from 

the  State  and  Imperial  undertakings,  and  the  remainder  from 

taxation,  direct  and  indirect. 

The  States  enter  to  a  considerable  extent  into  industrial 
enterprises,  much  to  the  benefit  of  the  people.  The  chief 
sources  of  revenue,  apart  from  taxation,  are  the  forests  and 
other  lands,  which  brought  in  a  net  income  of  £7,650,000  in 
1908 ;  the  mines,  which  returned  a  net  total  of  £485,000 ; 
the  railways,  which  made  a  profit  for  the  States  combined  of 
£29,700,000 ;  the  posts  and  telegraphs,  which  altogether 
brought  in  £810,000  ;  and  other  smaller  undertakings,  which 
earned  a  profit  of  £1,845,000.  The  only  item  on  which  the 
States  lost  money  was  the  State-ovsned  river  and  lake 
steamships,  which  showed  a  loss  of  £10,000. 

The  Empire  also  has  some  similar  sources  of  revenue.  For 
instance,  the  Imperial  railways  in  Alsace-Lorraine  were  worked 
at  a  profit  of  £770,000,  the  Imperial  posts  and  telegraphs 
showed  a  balance  of  £1,865,000,  and  the  Imperial  printing 
office  one  of  £190,000. 

The  net  income  to  States  and  Empire  together  from  these 
undertakings  in  1908  was  £43,305,000. 


10,  Germany  of  the  Germans 

With  all  the  incessant  expenditure  of  energy  in  the  race  of 
industrial  progress,  Germans  leave  themselves  Httle  time  for 
creative  work  in  other  directions. 

Literature,  for  instance,  has  suffered  greatly  in  recent  years. 

Not  that  there  is  a  lack  of  books  !     The  quantity  is  to  hand 

in  more  than  sufficiency  ;  but  the  good,  sound 

**sSn£til?^  ^  literary  effort  of  former  times  has  disappeared. 
More  reading  than  ever  is  done,  but  German 
lovers  of  letters  rely  on  the  old  standard  authors,  while  the 
multitude,  with  the  meagre  leisure  time  at  its  disposal, 
contents  itself  for  the  time  being  with  ephemeral  literature, 
which  it  hastily  glances  through  and  throws  away — its  proper 
fate. 

Both  music  and  art  appear  to  be  passing  through  a  period 

of  transition.     Music,  of  course,  is  born  in  the  blood  of  the 

German,   and  no  one  can  ever  quench  his 

Art^"^      love  for  it.     German  musicians  of  the  present 

day,    however,    are    striving   for  some  goal 

which  they  themselves  can  but  dimly  see,  if  they  see  it  at 

all,  with  the  result  that  wild,  sensational  compositions  are 

given  to  a  public  which  is   seeking  for   other   and  better 

things. 

As  to  art,  in  both  sculpture  and  painting  an  effort  is  being 
made  to  evolve  a  German  style,  hitherto  without  great 
success,  but  with  ever-increasing  promise.  Excellent  art 
schools  exist  in  plenty,  and  there  seems  little  doubt  that  some 
day  modern  German  art  will  take  its  place  on  the  same  plane 
as  that  of  other  nations  whose  achievements  have  rendered 
them  as  famous  in  that  regard  as  Germany  is  for  her  education, 
her  discipline,  her  industry,  and  her  administration. 


CHAPTER  11 

WILLIAM  II  AS   EMPEROR 

William  II,  chosen  Emperor  of  the  most  powerful  military 
nation  of  the  world,  may  be  said  almost  to  have  achieved  his 

purpose  of  becoming  the  arbiter  of  Europe's 
Arbiter  of       destinies.     Essentially  a  man  of  peace,  the 

Kaiser  is  yet  a  great  war-lord.  It  is  more  in 
that  capacity  than  as  their  ruler  that  the  Emperor  is  recognised 
by  the  German  people.  Yet  during  his  reign  of  more  than 
twenty  years  the  sword  of  Germany  has  not  once  been  drawn, 
although  it  has  on  occasions  rattled  ominously  in  its  sheath. 
The  fact  is,  the  Kaiser  loves  to  feel  his  power,  which  enables 
him  to  maintain  the  prestige  of  the  House  of  HohenzoUem 
and  with  it  that  of  the  German  Empire.  He  indulges  in  what 
might  almost  be  termed  worship  for  his  ancestor,  the  Grand 
Elector  Frederick  Wilhelm  of  Brandenburg,  who  first  changed 
Prussia  from  a  vaissal  province  into  an  independent 
principality. 

The  Emperor  certainly  inherited  the  traditional  devotion 
to  duty  of  the  Hohenzollerns.     He  is  a  lover  of  hard  work. 

There  is  no  eight-hour  day  for  him,  and  if  he 
^^Du^"  *°     completes  his  formidable  list  of  daily  tasks 

in  double  that  time  it  is  only  because  of  his 
extraordinary  energy  and  system.  His  example  in  this 
respect  seems  also  to  affect  those  around  him,  and  the  position 
of  his  Court  officials  is  never  a  sinecure.  When  any  matter 
of  importance  is  brought  to  his  notice,  he  insists  that  it  shall 
be  settled  the  same  day,  if  at  all  possible,  for  he  does  not  hke 
anything  to  be  held  over.  The  signature  of  all  State  papers 
is  carried  out  immediately  they  are  presented  to  his  Majesty, 
who  never  fails  to  order  that  they  shall  be  returned  to  the 
Ministry  whence  they  emanated  on  the  same  day.  Very  often 
on  the  following  morning  he  inquires  of  his  secretaries  or 

11 


12  Germany  of  the  Germans 

aides-de-camp  whether  the  documents  have  been  returned, 
and  if  he  learns  of  any  delay  the  ofi&cial  at  fault  has  a  bad 
quarter  of  an  hour. 

Even  when  he  is  travelling,  which  is  often  the  case,  the 
Kaiser  transacts  all  his  State  business  as  the  Imperial  train 
is  dashing  along,  and  his  post-bag  when  he  is  away  from 
Berlin  is  always  a  heavy  one. 

The  expense  attached  to  an  Imperial  railway  journey  is 

very  great.     The  Kaiser  never  travels  by  ordinary  train,  but 

utilizes  the  luxurious  railway  carriages  painted 

Tr  "el  ^^  ^^^^  ^^^  white  specially  constructed  for 

his  use.     The  train  is  composed  of  eleven  of 

these  carriages,  fitted  in  palatial  manner  with  all  thinkable 

conveniences,   and  is    so  heavy  that  two  locomotives  are 

required  to  draw  it.     The  average  cost  of  running  the  train 

is  about  ;f  10  per  mile,  and  this  has  to  be  paid  from  his  Majesty's 

privy  purse.     A  telegraph  operator  always  accompanies  the 

train,  carrying  portable  telegraphic  and  telephonic  apparatus, 

so  that  in  case  of  breakdown  or  accident  the  wires  on  the  side 

of  the  track  can  be  tapped  and  immediate  communication 

obtained  with  some  central  point. 

The  calls  on  his  Majesty's  privy  purse  are  very  many,  but 
he  has  ample  resources  to  meet  them.  As  King  of  Prussia 
he  enjoys  a  civil  list  of  ;f 850,000  a  year.  He 
R  our^^  is,  besides,  the  biggest  landowner  in  Prussia, 
with  an  immense  private  income.  His  grand- 
father, the  Emperor  William  I,  who  led  a  very  quiet  and 
economical  life,  also  left  him  a  fortune  of  £2,500,000. 

The  Emperor  possesses  a  large  number  of  castles  and 
palaces  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  which  call  for  the 
expenditure  of  an  enormous  amount  of  money  for  their 
upkeep,  and  he  has  recently  undertaken  the  costly  task  of 
restoring  some  of  them  which  had  almost  fallen  into  ruins. 
He  also  practically  bears  the  entire  expense  of  the  Imperial 
Opera  in  Berlin,  which  must  cost  him  many  thousands 
yearly. 


<^  Of   THE 


'  William  II  as  Emperor  13 

He  once  said  :  "  When  I  once  undertake  anything,  I  always 

carry  it  out,"  and  it  is  certain  that  in  whatever  he  undertakes 

the  Emperor  seems  to  put  his  whole  heart. 

Tu«-^^!fu  Whether   he    is   leading   a   cavalry   charge, 

Thoroughness.  .    o  ..      ./      rr  7 

commandmg  his  cruiser  yacht,   the   Hohen- 

zollern,  sailing  in  a  yacht  race,  motoring,   playing  tennis, 

walking,   shooting  or  riding — ^his  mind  is  concentrated  on 

what  he  is  doing. 

He  is  devoted  to  exercise,  and  when  in  Berlin  spends 
considerable  time  on  horseback,  although  it  is  said  that  he 
does  not  care  much  for  riding.  The  sea  appears  to  have 
many  attractions  for  him,  and  he  delights  to  be  on  board  of 
the  Meteor  during  a  hard-sailed  race,  or  walking  the  quarter- 
deck of  a  battleship  during  the  manoeuvres,  when  he  foUows 
every  evolution  of  each  vessel  of  the  fleet  with  the  utmost 
minuteness. 

Deer-stalking  is  one  of  his  favourite  sports,  and  he  secures 
many  a  good  bag  of  game  when  he  is  staying  at  his  shooting 
preserves  at  Rominten  and  Liineburg. 

Wild-boar  hunting  is  another  form  of  sport  which  his 
Majesty  thoroughly  enjoys.  He  throws  off  all  formality 
during  the  sport  and  joins  in  conversation  with  the  foresters  and 
gamekeepers  in  the  most  good-natured  way  while  aU  sit  round 
the  ambulatory  lunch  waggon  to  partake  of  a  simple  meal. 

Lawn-tennis  is  a  form  of  exercise  in  which  he  was  at  one 
time  an  adept,  but  of  late  years  he  has  practised  the  game 
only  occasionally  while  at  Potsdam. 

Even  in  his  private  life,  when  he  is  not  occupied  with  State 

business,   the   Kaiser's  energy  displays  itself  at  all  times. 

He  is  a  rapid  eater,  prefers  the  most  simple 

^Life.^^         dishes,     and    generally    has     an     excellent 

appetite ;     but  he   drinks   most  moderately 

and  now  only  rarely  smokes.       His  first  meal,  which  is  a 

hearty    one,    served    very    early,    is    eaten    with    all    the 

members  of  the  family  who  are  in  residence  in  the  palace. 

Then,    after    pressing   State    business   is    settled,   he  often 


14  Germany  of  the  Germans 

walks  or  rides,  sometimes  with  the  Empress.  Luncheon  is 
always  very  formal  and  many  guests  are  generally  present. 
The  rest  of  the  day  is  usually  given  up  to  public  engagements, 
reception  of  guests,  conferences  with  his  councillors,  etc., 
until  dinner,  a  simple  meal,  after  which  the  Kaiser  reads  with 
his  family  and  discusses  the  events  of  the  day  until  about 
11  o'clock.  Then  another  hour's  hard  work  at  State  business 
and  his  Majesty  retires  to  bed. 

Like  all  the  members  of  the  Hohenzollern  family,  the 
Emperor  has  learned  a  trade,  that  of  bookbinding,  and  he 
applied  himself  to  it  with  such  energy  that  he  became  really 
expert.  He  has  often  put  his  knowledge  to  practical  use  in 
the  Imperial  private  library,  which  contains  many  a  volume 
bound  by  the  Imperial  hands.  It  was  he,  too,  who  designed 
the  bookmark  in  daily  use  in  the  palace. 

It  is  almost  impossible  not  to  admire  the  Emperor,  who^ 
strong  personality  is  so  attractive.     Some  of  the  vitality 

with  which  he  has  filled  his  reign  seems  to 
Personality       ^^-^e  spread  to  all  classes  of  his  subjects,  who 

have  thus  been  spurred  on  to  make  efforts 
which  they  would  not  have  thought  of  attempting  had  they 
not  imbibed  some  of  the  overflowing  optimism  of  their 
Emperor.  He  has,  in  fact,  revivified  decadent  kingship. 
Although  not  physically  very  strong,  he  toils  without  cessation 
for  his  House  and  the  Empire  in  a  way  that  neither  he  nor  any 
other  man  could  do  unless  with  a  great  incentive,  and  that 
incentive  is  the  belief  that  he  is  divinely  selected  to  brace  up 
and  lead  the  German  nation  to  a  great  destiny. 

The  Kaiser  possesses  most  of  the  virtues  of  the  German 
people — he  is  warm-hearted,  impulsive,  earnest,  intelligent 

and  ideahstic.       He   has   also  some   of  its 
Demerits        demerits,  for  he  is  rather  vain  and  inclined  to 

complete  self-satisfaction,  but  these  are 
somewhat  tempered  by  his  lively  sense  of  curiosity  and 
recognition  of  the  fact  that  others  also  have  merits.  He  is 
above  everything  else  filled  with  the  belief  of  the  divine 


William  II  as  Emperor  15    ^ 

mission  of  the  House  of  Hohenzollem,  and  determined  to 

maintain  and  if  possible  increase  its  prestige,  and  this  appears 

to  overburden  his  character.     It  is  said  he  will  not  brook,  or 

rather  does  not  like,  the  expression  of  initiative  or  independent 

thought  among  his  Ministers  or  courtiers  ;  but  he  likes  to  hear 

the  views  of  distinguished  foreigners  on  subjects  in  which  he 

is  interested.     In  his  conversations  with  them  he  is  charming 

and   wonderfully   versatile.     Most   persons   who   come   into 

personal  contact  with  him  leave  under  a  kind  of  fascination. 

He  seems  to  know  at  once  how  to  get  the  best  out  of  his 

guests.     With  an  Englishman  he  is  more  than  English,  with 

a  Frenchman  more  than  French,  and  with  an  American  more 

than  American.     Some  say  that  this  is  the  result  of  perfect 

acting,  but  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  in  every  case 

the  Kaiser  is  sincere. 

Whatever  errors  of  judgment  he  may  have  committed 

during  his  reign,  there  is  no  doubt  the  Kaiser  has  always  acted 

in  good  faith  for  what  he  believed  at  the 

•^^r^^A^'^^u    moment  to  be  the  welfare  of  the  Empire, 
in  (jooq  raitn.    ,t    i        i  ^  •  i  ... 

He  has  been  subjected  to  very  severe  cnticism, 

not  only  in  other  countries,  but  by  his  own  people.     This  was 

more  especially  the  case  at  the  time  of  the  notorious  interview 

in  1908,  when  a  veritable  storm  burst  over  his  Majesty's  head 

from  people  and  press  of  every  party  and  class. 

The  Emperor  feels  that  his  kingly  duty  calls  upon  him  to 
take  up  such  a  position  in  public  life  as  to  make  him  the  arbiter 
to  whom  the  people  will  look  in  all  public  questions. 

His  readiness  to  make  a  speech  on  any  and  every  subject 
which  comes  under  his  notice  has,  however,  on  many  occasions 
caused  local  storms  in  the  circles  affected  by  his  words,  for 
he  has  that  dogmatic  trait  of  asserting  his  views  and  admitting 
no  contrary  opinion  which  is  characteristic  of  the  German. 
His  range  of  thought  is  so  wide,  and  he  is  credited  with  being 
so  liberal,  that  one  must  almost  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
this  dogmatism  has  been  given  birth  to  by  the  flattery  of  his 
courtiers,  most  of  whom  belong  to  that  old  feudal  class  whose 


16  Germany  of  the  Germans 

first  and  only  belief  is  that  everything  their  monarch  says 
or  does  is  right,  and  are  constantly  telling  him  so.  It  is  said 
that  he  rarely  learns  the  exact  truth  about  public  opinion 
of  his  doings  and  sayings,  for  his  time  is  too  much  occupied 
for  him  to  read  newspapers,  and  the  information  has  to  filter 
through  the  hands  of  a  number  of  courtiers  before  it  reaches 
his  Majesty. 

Notwithstanding  his  more  recent  leaning  towards  the  sea, 
the  Kaiser  has  not  lost  his  love  for  soldiering.  His  early 
career  as  an  infantry  and  then  as  a  cavalry 
Sold*er  ne  officer  was,  as  with  all  princes,  one  of  rapid 
promotion.  It  was  when  he  became  colonel 
of  the  Hussars  of  the  Guard  in  1885  that  his  personality 
began  to  make  itself  felt.  He  was  a  real  martinet,  and  if 
a  subaltern  officer  did  not  attain  that  pitch  of  perfection 
in  his  duties  which  was  demanded  by  the  young 
princely  colonel,  he  found  himself  suddenly  transferred  to 
an  obscure  line  regiment  with  small  chance  of  promotion. 
Prince  WiUiam  did  not  allow  even  the  minutest  details  to 
escape  his  notice  :  even  the  men's  clothing  and  their  barrack 
comforts  were  carefully  inquired  into.  When  he  was 
promoted  brigadier  every  regimental  report  was  examined 
and  commented  on  by  him  and  the  archives  of  the  troops 
then  under  his  command  still  contain  lengthy  criticisms  in 
his  handwriting.  He  was  major-general  at  the  age  of 
twenty-nine,  when  he  was  called  to  the  Imperial  throne. 

Even  as  Emperor  he  continued  his  military  studies  whenever 
he  found  an  opportunity,  and  he  always  makes  it  a  point  to 
be  present  at  the  great  annual  army  manoeuvres,  where  he 
follows  the  movements  of  the  opposing  forces  with  the  closest 
attention.  At  the  end  of  a  hard  day's  fighting  he  will  often, 
surrounded  by  the  wholfe  corps  of  officers  who  have  taken 
part,  speak  for  an  hour  or  so  without  notes,  criticising  or 
praising  the  execution  of  the  movements. 

In  the  Navy,  which  is  his  own  creation,  he  also  shows 
immense   interest.    When   on    board   the   flagship   at    the 


COUNT   ZEPPELIN 


OF.  THF 

U!SIIVER3fTY 

Of 


William  II  as  Emperor  17 

manGeuvres,  he  inquires  closely  into  the  welfare  of  the  crew 
and   every    day   he    has  a  plateful  of  the  sailors'  rations 
brought  to  him  direct  from  the  cook's  galley. 
Interest  m  the   q^  many  occasions  he  does  not  content  him- 
self with  looking  at  it  and  giving  his  approval, 
but  consumes  the  entire  contents,  apparently  with  enjoyment, 
even  when  the  food  consists  only  of  red  herrings  and  unpeeled 
potatoes. 

The  varied  distribution  of  the  Emperor's  energies,  which 
is  sometimes  decried,  is  due  to  his  overwhelming  desire  to  push 
things  forward. 

The  Emperor's  versatility  is  so  extended  that  scarcely  any 

subject  escapes  his  attention.     He  will  jump  from  an  earnest 

discussion  on  theology  to  the  latest  theory 

V     atuitv       ^^  ^^^  conquest  of  the  air.     On  the  subject 

of  airships  he  is  enthusiastic.     When  Count 

Zeppelin    was    reported   to   be  on  the   way   to    Berlin  in 

his   monster    air-cruiser   for   the   first   time,    the    Emperor 

set  off  in  his  motor-car  from  Potsdam  and  waited  in  the 

midst  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  excited  inhabitants  of 

Berlin    for    several    hours    on   the  military  parade-ground 

looking  out    for  the  Count's  arrival.     It  was  the   Kaiser 

who,    after  hearing  a  lecture    on    the    progress    made    in 

dirigible  airships  in  France,  gave  orders  for  the  army  balloon 

corps     to     construct    the     steerable     balloon     which     has 

proved  such  a  great  success.     The  society  for  the  study  of 

aerial   navigation,   under   the    chairmanship  of   Major  von 

Parseval,  was  also  founded  on  the  Kaiser's  recommendation, 

with  the  result  that  it  now  constructs  dirigibles  which  with 

the  greatest  ease  undertake  trips  of  twelve  and  fifteen  hours. 

Art  is  one  of  the  subjects  on  which  the  Kaiser  regards 

himself  as  an  authority,  and  to  which  he  gives 

^"^^^1^  °"    ^^^  patronage.     He  undoubtedly  possesses  a 

remarkably  extensive  artistic  understanding, 

acquired  from   his   mother,    the    Empress   Frederick.     The 

knowledge  he  imbibed  from  her  was  based  on  such  sound 


18  Germany  of  the  Germans 

and  common-sense  principles  that  he  has  never  been  able  to 
overcome  his  oft-expressed  dislike  for  modem  Impressionists. 
His  love  for  the  old  masters  is  deep-seated,  and  he  never 
misses  an  occasion  of  displaying  it.  One  of  his  great  prefer- 
ences is  for  old  English  pictures,  as  was  shown  when  he 
himself  opened  the  exhibition  in  Berlin  of  masterpieces  by 
Gainsborough,  Reynolds,  Lawrence,  and  other  British 
painters. 

The  list  of  his  Majesty's  activities  is  almost  inexhaustible — 
from  preaching  an  impromptu  sermon  to  making  suggestions 
for  a  statue,  from  launching  a  battleship  to  superintending 
an  opera  rehearsal,  everything  is  included,  and  all  the  varied 
tasks  are  carried  out  with  an  attention  to  detail  which  would 
be  surprising  in  anyone  else. 

Whether  he  is  really  popular  is  hard  to  judge.  The  German, 
although  loyal  to  a  degree,  is  not  enthusiastic,  and  his  reception 
of  the  Kaiser  when  his  Majesty  passes  through 
Pooula^  ?  *^^  streets  strikes  a  foreigner  as  somewhat 
cold  and  forced.  Perhaps  the  German  con- 
siders loyalty  has  no  need  to  be  shouted,  but  is  better 
demonstrated  by  making  sacrifices  in  his  country's  and  his 
monarch's  service. 

In  the  person  of  the  Crown  Prince,  whose  character  is  much 

quieter  than  that  of  his  father,  the  people  of  the  German 

Empire  have  a  future  ruler  wko  is  not  only 

'^^Prince!^"  respected  for  his  ability,  but  thoroughly  liked. 
His  cheerful  presence  is  welcomed  everywhere. 
A  soldier  from  the  age  of  fourteen,  he  has  followed  the  pro- 
fession of  arms  with  earnestness  and  devotion.  Although  he 
is  still  very  young — he  was  born  in  1882 — he  has  travelled 
much,  having  paid  a  visit  to  the  Far  East,  as  well  as  to  many 
of  the  Courts  of  Europe.  This  phase  of  his  education,  although 
of  importance  from  the  point  of  view  of  extending  his  know- 
ledge of  the  world  through  personal  observation,  passes  into 
the  background  beside  the  complete  training  he  has  undergone 
and  is  still  continuing  in  statecraft.    He  has  undertaken,  at 


Pholo  by 


THE    CROWN    PRINCE 


u 


Of  THE 

DIVERSITY 

OF 


William  II  as  Emperor  19 

his  father's  request,  to  go  through  a  course  of  practical  work 
in  all  the  State  ministerial  offices,  where,  according  to  the 
Ministers  themselves,  he  has  proved  a  very  apt  pupil. 

Following  the  example  of  the  Emperor,  he  has  learned  a 
trade,  and  is  a  very  competent  carpenter  and  joiner.  He  is, 
however,  above  all  a  sportsman  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word, 
for  he  takes  an  active  part  in  many  games,  although  tennis 
is  his  favourite  pastime.  Yachting  on  the  lakes  round  Berlin 
in  a  small  vessel  is  also  a  frequent  amusement.  He  has  also 
made  an  ascent  in  an  aeroplane. 

He  married,  in  1905,  at  the  age  of  twenty-three,  the  Princess 
Ceciha  of  Mecklenburg,  and  the  young  couple  already  have 
three  sons,  so  that  the  succession  to  the  Imperial  throne  is 
well  secured. 

The  Emperor  has  taken  such  a  pre-eminent  position  that 

foreigners  are  almost  unaware  that  there  are  in  the  Empire 

twenty  other  ruhng  monarchs  and  princes. 

Other  German  gQjjjg  ^f  whom  have  occupied  their  thrones 
much  longer  than  the  Emperor  has  occupied 
the  throne  of  Prussia.  Duke  George  of  Saxe-Meiningen  is 
the  oldest  of  these.  He  was  born  on  April  2nd,  1826.  Then 
follow  Prince  Charles  Gunther  of  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, 
1831  ;  Prince  Henry  XIV  of  Reuss  (younger  line),  1833 ; 
Prince  George  of  Schaumburg-Lippe,  1847  ;  King  WiUiam  11 
of  Wiirttemberg,  1849  ;  King  Otto  of  Bavaria,  1849  ;  Grand 
Duke  Adolph  Frederick  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  1849  ;  Prince 
Gunther  of  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,  1853 ;  Grand  Duke 
August  of  Oldenburg,  1853 ;  Duke  Frederick  II  of  Anhalt, 
1857;  Duke  Frederick  II  of  Baden,  1858;  Prince  Frederick 
of  Waldeck  and  Pyrmont,  1865  ;  King  Frederick  August  of 
Saxony,  1866  ;  Grand  Duke  Ludwig  of  Hessen,  1869  ;  Prince 
Leopold  VI  of  Lippe,  1872  ;  Duke  Ernst  II  of  Saxe-Altenburg, 
1872 ;  Grand  Duke  William  Ernest  of  Saxe-Weimar,  1877  ; 
Prince  Henry  XXIV  of  Reuss  (old  line),  1879  ;  Grand  Duke 
Frederick  Francis  IV  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  1883 ;  and 
Duke  Charles  Edward  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  1885. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  IMPERIAL  CONSTITUTION 

This  great  Empire,  with  its  immense  population  of  over  sixty 

millions  and  its  enormous  interests  throughout  the  world, 

possesses  a  Constitution  which  does  not  rest 

^  ^°  A^.^"*^"^^  ^^  tradition,  as  those  of  many  other  countries 

do,  but  is  written  down  above  the  signatures 

of  the  heads  of  all  the  States  forming  the  Federation. 

The  interpretation  of  the  Constitution  has  given  rise  to 
many  arguments,  more  especially  during  that  period  of  1908 
when  the  Emperor  was  generally  supposed  to  have  exceeded 
his  rights  as  head  of  the  Bond. 

It  was  then  argued  in  the  Imperial  Parliament  that  the 

Kaiser  was  not  the  Sovereign  of  the  Empire,  but  simply  the 

most  important  Prince  among  the  body  of 

thrsov/re?^*.    ^^^^^g    P^^^^s-     This    argument    met    with 
much  opposition  at  the  time  and,  on  examina- 
tion of  the  Imperial  Constitution,  cannot  be  upheld  in  all  its 
force. 

That  the  Kaiser  is  not  the  ruler  of  the  Empire  de  facto  is 
true,  although  he  exercises  virtually  absolute  sovereign  power, 
especially  in  regard  to  external  politics,  and  he  is  also  in  the 
event  of  hostilities  supreme  commander  of  all  the  military 
forces  of  all  the  States  composing  the  Empire. 

The  real  rulers,  however,  are  supposed  to  be  the  Federal 
Council,  representing  all  the  Princes,  States  and  free  cities, 
and  this  view  has  been  upheld  by  the  Imperial  Supreme  Court. 

The  King  of  Prussia,  according  to  the  Imperial  Constitution, 
must  be  German  Emperor  and  President  of  the  Federal 
Union,  in  which  all  ruling  sovereigns  of  the  Empire  possess 
supposedly  equal  rights. 

20 


The  Imperial  Constitution  21 

The  Kaiser,  however,  from  his  position  as  such,  is  the 

representative  of  the  Empire  in  the  conclusion  of  treaties 

and  in  all  other  dealings  with  foreign  Powers, 

^^^Emp^.*^*  and  without  his  consent  no  contract  or  treaty 
with  any  other  Power  can  become  binding. 
He  alone  of  the  ruling  Princes  is  entitled  to  confer  with  foreign 
ambassadors.  He  alone  has  the  right  to  declare  a  state  of 
siege  in  any  part  of  the  Empire,  and  he  does  not  require 
the  consent  of  the  ruler  of  that  part  of  the  Empire  before 
making  such  a  declaration. 

The  Kaiser  alone  has  the  right  to  appoint  the  Imperial 

Chancellor  and  other   Ministers,   and  may  do  so  without 

consulting   in   any   way   the   feeling   of   the 

^^Ch^cdlSJ.*"^  country  or  taking  into  account  the  political 

tendency  of  the  majority  of  the  people. 

Of  course,  it  is  possible  for  the  people  through  their  repre- 
sentatives in  Parliament  to  decline  to  vote  supplies  for  a 
Chancellor  whom  they  regard  as  unsuitable,  and  for  this 
reason  the  Kaiser  takes  great  care  in  his  selection  so  as  not  to 
arouse  the  opposition  of  the  people. 

Should  the  Chancellor,  however,  be  defeated  by  a  parlia- 
mentary majority,  there  is  nothing  to  compel  the  Kaiser  to 
remove  him  from  office,  and  it  has  happened 

Popu?2^  WilL^  frequently  that  a  Chancellor  has  suffered  a 
parliamentary  reverse  without  his  position 
being  affected.  Usually  in  such  an  event  the  Chancellor 
makes  slight  changes  in  his  propositions  and,  taking  advantage 
of  the  divisions  among  the  parties,  secures  a  majority  favour- 
able to  his  wishes  by  creating  fresh  combinations,  sometimes 
casting  aside  for  the  purpose  groups  which  have  hitherto 
strongly  supported  him. 

The  Chancellor  is,  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word,  the  servant 
of  the  Emperor.  According  to  the  Constitution,  he  takes 
the  responsibility  for  all  the  Emperor's  acts,  but  it  is  not  laid 
down  in  that  document  to  whom  he  is  responsible.  It 
certainly  is  not  to  the  people,  who  are  not  permitted  to  pass 


22  Germany  of  the  Germans 

a  vote  of  censure  on  him  through  their  representatives  in 
Parliament  and  cannot  call  for  his  dismissal  or  resignation. 

Neither  are  any  of  the  Ministers  responsible  to  the  Imperial 

Parliament,  but  to  the  Chancellor.     They  are  not  members 

of  the   parliamentary  body,   although   they 

^elplnsibk!*  may  speak  in  the  House  when  they  like.  No 
member  of  Parliament  has  the  right  to 
demand  an  answer  to  a  question  from  a  Minister,  and  the 
House  cannot  turn  a  Minister  out  of  office. 

The  Imperial  Parliament  is,  therefore,  only  nominally  a 
portion  of  the  governing  body.  It  has  the  right,  it  is  true,  to 
refuse  to  pass  a  bill  presented  to  it  by  the  Government,  but 
in  doing  so  it  runs  the  danger  of  being  sent  about  its  business. 
If  this  occurred,  another  Parliament  would  be  elected.  In 
case  the  new  Parliament  took  the  same  view  as  its  predecessor, 
what  would  occur  ?  The  question  has  often  been  discussed 
without  eliciting  a  satisfactory  response. 

The  Federal  Council,  in  that  event,  would  not  be  con- 
stitutionally empowered  to  carry  on  the  business  of  the 
Empire,    for    the    consent    of    the    Imperial 

Federal  Council  Parliament   is   requisite   in   order   to   make 
Unable  to  Act  ,  .,         ,     i       , 

Alone.  ^^y  ^^  its  acts  legal. 

It    seems    probable,    therefore,    that    any 
such  action  on  the  part  of  Parliament  would  bring  about  the 
introduction  of  real  parliamentary  government,  although  this 
would  be  strongly  opposed  by  Prussia,  which,  with  its  seven- 
teen votes  in  the  Federal  Council,  exercises  such  a  predominant 
influence,  and,  besides,  has  the  support  of  many  of  the  smaU 
moribund  principalities. 
'v      A  glance  at  the  principal  articles  of  the  written  Imperial 
"^  Constitution  of  April  16th,  1871,  will  be  useful  in  determining 
Kl  ?  1       the  scope  of  the  agreement,  with  the  respective 
,  f   Principal        rights  of  the  Emperor,  the  component  parts 
'  Constitution.     ^^  the  Empire  and  the  two  legislative  bodies. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  document  binds 
the  various  kingdonis,  principalities,  dukedoms,  and  free  cities 


The  Imperial  Constitution  23 

into  "  an  eternal  union,"  from  which  no  single  member  may 
break  away  without  the  consent  of  the  others. 

Since  the  date  on  which  the  Constitution  came  into  opera- 
tion, several  of  its  clauses  have  been  slightly  changed.  These 
alterations  are  included  in  the  following  synopsis  of  the 
fourteen  sections  containing  in  all  seventy-eight  articles. 

After  a  prehminary  paragraph  stating  that  "  His  Majesty 

the  King  of  Prussia  in  the  name  of  the  North  German  Union, 

his  Majesty  the  King  of  Bavaria,  his  Majesty 

^^oT"^  the  King  of  Wiirttemberg,  his  Royal  Highness 
the  Grand  Duke  of  Baden  and  his  Royal 
Highness  the  Grand  Duke  of  Hesse  and  the  Rhine  for  the 
portions  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse  situated  south  of  the 
Main,  enter  into  an  eternal  union  for  the  protection  of  the 
territory  of  the  Union  and  the  established  law  therein  valid, 
also  for  the  furtherance  of  the  welfare  of  the  German  people," 
the  Constitution  goes  on  to  say :  "  This  Union  shall  bear 
the  name  of  the  German  Empire  and  have  the  following 
Constitution." 

Section  I  contains  only  one  article  : 

"  Article  I. — The  territory  of  the  Union  consists  of  the 

States  of  Prussia,  Lauenburg,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Wiirttemberg, 

Baden,  Hesse,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Saxe- 

Territorv        Weimar,     Mecklenburg-Strelitz,     Oldenburg, 

Brunswick,  Saxe-Meiningen,  Saxe-Altenburg, 

Saxe  -  Coburg  -  Gotha,      Anhalt,      Schwarzburg  -  Rudolstadt, 

Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,    Waldeck,    Reuss    (elder    line), 

Reuss    (younger  hne),   Schaumburg-Lippe,    Lippe,   Liiback, 

Bremen  and  Hamburg,  as  well  as  the  Imperial  province  of 

Alsace-Lorraine." 

The  second  section  consists  of  four  articles,  giving  Imperial 
legislation  the  preference  over  State  legislation  ;  making  the 
inhabitants  of  all  the  Federal  States  into  German  subjects  in 
whatever  part  of  the  Empire  they  may  choose  to  reside, 
giving  the  Imperial  authorities  supervision  of  import  and 
export  duties,  commercial  treaties,  banks,  coinage,  weights 


24  Germany  of  the  Germans 

and  measures,  patents,  copyrights,  consulates,  railways, 
waterways,  posts  and  telegraphs  except  in  Bavaria  and 
Wiirttemberg,  the  carrying  out  of  civil  and  commercial  law,  the 
Army  and  Navy,  the  regulation  of  the  medical  and  veterinary 
professions,  and  the  rules  for  the  Press  and  associations. 

Article  5  of  this  section  nominates  the  Federal  Council  and 

the  Imperial  Parliament  as  law-making  institutions  for  the 

Empire,  and  declares  that  the  agreement  of 

Law  Makers     *^^  majorities  of  those  bodies  on  a  bill  enacting 
Imperial  legislation  is  necessary  and  sufficient 
to  make  it  law. 

Section  III  comprises  five  articles,  the  first  of  which  lays 
down  the  voting  power  of  the  various  Federal  States  in  the 
Federal  Council  as  follows.  The  total  number  of  votes  is 
58,  of  which  Prussia  (comprising  also  the  old  province  of  Han- 
over, the  electorate  of  Hesse,  Holstein,  Nassau  and  the  city  of 
Frankfort)  is  allotted  17,  Bavaria  6,  Saxony  4,  Wiirttemberg  4, 
Baden  3,  Hesse  3,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  2,  Saxe-Weimar  1, 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz  1,  Oldenburg  1,  Brunswick  2,  Saxe- 
Meiningen  1,  Saxe-Altenburg  1,  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  1, 
Anhalt  1,  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt  1,  Schwarzburg-Sonders- 
hausen  1,  Waldeck  1,  Reuss  (elder  line)  1,  Reuss  (younger 
line)  1,  Schaumburg-Lippe  1,  Lippe  1,  Liibeck  1,  Bremen  1, 
and  Hamburg  1. 

To  every  meeting  of  the  Federal  Council  each  of  these 

States  is  entitled  to  send  as  many  plenipotentiaries  as  it  has 

votes,    but   all   the   representatives  of  each 

^*Power°**"^    State  must  vote  together,  either  for  or  against 
a  proposal. 

The  powers  of  the  Federal  Council  consist  in  the  drawing 
up  and  proposal  of  bills  to  the  Imperial  Parliament  and  the 
discussion  of  bills  and  resolutions  passed  by  that  body,  as 
well  as  the  carrying  into  effect  of  Imperial  legislation. 

Every  State  belonging  to  the  Federal  Council  has  the  right 
to  bring  forward  proposals  and  the  Council  must  discuss  such 
proposals. 


The  Imperial  Constitution  25 

When  a  question  arises  affecting  only  certain  States  in  the 
Empire,  only  the  representatives  of  those  States  take  part 
in  the  voting. 

On  general  questions  of  legislation  a  simple  majority  carries 
or  rejects  a  bill  or  motion,  but  in  questions  affecting  a  change 
of  the  Imperial  Constitution,  fourteen  votes  cast  against  the 
proposal  are  sufficient  to  reject  it. 

The  Federal  Council  has  seven  standing  committees,  dealing 

with  (1)  the  army  and  fortifications,  (2)  the  navy,  (3)  the  duties 

and    taxes,    (4)    trade    and    commerce,    (5) 

Committee  railways,  posts  and  telegraphs,  (6)  justice, 
(7)  finance.  On  each  of  these  committees  at 
least  four  Federal  States  must  be  represented.  The  com- 
mittees are  chosen  by  election  in  the  Council,  except  in  the 
case  of  the  Army  committee,  on  which  Bavaria  is  always 
represented,  and  the  Emperor  nominates  the  other  members. 

There  is  also  a  numerically  stronger  committee  formed  by 
the  Council  to  deal  with  foreign  affairs.  This  is  always 
presided  over  by  a  Bavarian  representative,  and  Saxony  and 
Wiirttemberg  have  the  right  to  membership,  while  two  other 
committeemen  are  elected  by  the  Federal  Council. 

Every  member  of  the  Federal  Council  has  also  the  right 
to  attend  and  speak  at  the  sittings  of  the  Imperial  Parliament. 
He  can  claim  to  be  heard  there  at  any  time,  and  may  explain 
the  views  of  his  Government  although  the  Federal  Council 
may  have  rejected  them. 

Section  IV  deals  with  the  presidency  of  the  German  Union, 

which  is  definitely  allotted  to  the  King  of  Prussia,  "  who  is 

to  bear  the  title  of  German  Emperor." 

^RThte '^  The  rights  of  the  German  Emperor  as  such 

are  strictly  laid  down.     **  He  has  to  represent 

the  Empire  in  international  affairs,  in  the  name  of  the  Empire 

to  declare  war  or  conclude  peace,  to  make  alliances  or  other 

agreements  with  foreign  Powers,  to  nominate  and  to  receive 

ambassadors." 

The  declaration  of  war  in  the  name  of  the  Empire  has  to 


26  Germany  of  the  Germans 

receive  the  consent  of  the  Federal  Council,  unless  an  attack 
on  the  territory  or  the  coasts  of  the  Empire  has  been  delivered. 

Any  treaty  or  agreement  with  a  foreign  power  which  affects 
the  Imperial  internal  law  has  to  receive  the 

I^VJ^atiwf  ^^^^^*  ^^  ^°*^  Federal  Council  and  Imperial 
Parliament. 

It  rests  with  the  Emperor  to  call  together,  to  open,  to 
adjourn  and  to  close  the  Federal  Council  and  the  Imperial 
Parliament.  Both  must  meet  annually.  The  Federal  Council 
may  be  called  together  in  order  to  prepare  its  legislative  work 
without  the  Imperial  Parliament,  but  the  Imperial  Parliament 
may  not  meet  without  the  Federal  Council  being  caUed  together 
at  the  same  time. 

The  Federal  Council  must  be  called  together  whenever  a 
third  of  its  membership  demands  it. 

The  Imperial  Chancellor,  who  is  nominated  by  the  Emperor, 
is  president  of  the  Federal  Council  and  directs  the  business. 
He  can,  however,  nominate  another  member  of  the  Council 
as  his  deputy. 

The  proposals  of  the  Federal  Council  are  sent  to  the  Imperial 
Parliament  in  the  name  of  the  Emperor,  and  members  of  the 
Council  or  commissioners  nominated  by  the  Council  attend 
the  Imperial  Parliament  to  represent  the  Council  during  their 
discussion. 

The  Emperor  has  the  duty  of  signing  and  decreeing  Imperial 

laws  and  the  supervision  of  their  execution.     The  Emperor's 

commands  and  decrees  are  issued  in  the  name 

Si^iS^Laws      ^^  ^^^  Empire  and  require  for  their  validity 

the     counter-signature     of     the      Imperial 

Chancellor,  who  thereby  accepts  the  responsibility  for  them. 

The  Emperor  appoints  all  Imperial  officials,  swears  them 
into  the  service  of  the  Empire,  and  has  the  right  to  dismiss 
them. 

If  members  of  the  Federation  do  not  fulfil  their  constitu- 
tional duties,  they  may  be  forced  to  do  so  by  the  Federal 
Council,  and  the  Emperor  must  enforce  the  compulsion. 


The  Imperial  Constitution  27 

Section  V  is  composed  of  thirteen  chapters  relating  to  the 

Imperial  Parliament.     It  begins  with  the  method  of  election, 

and    says :     "  The    Imperial    Parliament    is 

Imperial        constituted    throuerh    universal    and    direct 
Parliament.         ,       .  .  ,  ^  •       i.     ^i  ^ 

elections  with  secret  voting.       The  number 

of  members,  according  to  the  law  of  June,  1873,  is  397,  of  whom 
48  are  allotted  to  Bavaria,  17  to  Wiirttemberg,  14  to  Baden, 
6  to  the  province  of  Hesse  south  of  the  Main,  and  15  to  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  while  the  remainder  come  from  the  constituencies 
of  Prussia  and  Saxony. 

Officials  of  the  Empire  or  the  States  may  become  members 
of  the  Imperial  Parliament  even  while  they  are  in  active 
service,  but  any  member  of  the  Imperial  Parliament  accepting 
a  paid  office  in  the  State  or  Imperial  service,  or  any  official 
who  is  a  member  and  is  appointed  to  a  higher  rank  or  is 
accorded  an  increased  salary  thereby  vacates  his  seat  and 
must  seek  re-election. 

The  sittings  of  the  Imperial  Parliament  are  public. 

The  Imperial  Parliament  has  the  right,  within  the  compe- 
tence of  the  Empire,  to  propose  new  laws  and  to  submit 
petitions  which  have  been  presented  to  it 

^^pi^rf '^  to  the  Federal  Council  or  the  Imperial 
Chancellor. 

The  period  for  which  the  Imperial  Parliament  is  elected 
is  five  years.  Its  dissolution  during  that  time  can  only  be 
effected  through  a  resolution  of  the  Federal  Council  assented 
to  by  the  Emperor. 

In  case  of  dissolution  the  new  elections  must  take  place 
within  sixty  days,  and  the  Imperial  Parliament  must  be 
reassembled  within  ninety  days. 

An  adjournment  of  the  Imperial  Parliament  for  more  than 
thirty  days  cannot  occur  without  its  own  consent,  and  this 
must  not  be  repeated  during  the  same  session. 

The  resolutions  of  the  Imperial  Parliament  are  reached  by 
absolute  majority,  but  no  resolution  is  valid  unless  a  majority 
of  the  397  members  participate  in  the  vote. 


28  Germany  of  the  Germans 

The  members  are  regarded  as  representing  the  entire  people 

and  not  any  particular  constituency.     No  member  can  be 

prosecuted  or  punished  for  any  utterance  he 

Members       may   make   in   the   House,    and   carries   no 

Nation.         responsibility  outside  for  what  he  has  done 

in  the  Parliament. 

Without  the  consent  of  the  House,  no  member  can  be 

called  on  during  the  session  to  answer  any  punishable  charge 

nor  can  he  be  arrested  unless  he  be  caught  in  the  act  or  within 

the  next  twenty-four  hours. 

Section  VI,  with  eight  articles,  deals  with  commerce  and 
import  duties. 

Section  VII,  with  seven  articles,  relates  to  the  railways 

and  the  right  of  the  Empire  to  take  them  over  in  case  of 

need.       It  also  calls  on  the  Federal  States 

^nSlwaT^     to  have   all  railways  constructed  or  relaid 

on  a  single  system. 
Section  VIII,  with  five  articles,  concerns  the  posts  and 
telegraphs. 

Section  IX,  with  only  three  articles,  refers  to  the  Navy, 
which  is  placed  under  the  supreme  command  of  the  Emperor, 
who  names  all  officers  and  officials.  The  necessary  funds 
for  its  upkeep  are  to  be  drawn  from  the  Imperial  Treasury. 
This  section  also  places  the  supervision  of  the  merchant 
marine  under  Imperial  control. 

It  gives  the  colours  of  the  flag  of  the  Imperial  Navy  and 
merchant  marine  as  black,  white  and  red. 

Section  X,  with  one  article,  regulates  the  consular  service. 

Section  XI,  in  eleven  articles,  defines  the  military  duties 

of  every  German,  and  designates  the  peace 

Militery        strength  of  the  Army  as  1  per  cent,  of  the 

population. 

Section  XII,  with  five  articles,  concerns  the  finances  of 

the  Empire,  whose  expenditure  is  to  be  covered  by  import 

duties  and  general  taxes,  from  the  surplus  of  the  Imperial 

railways,  the  posts  and  tele^aphs,  and  other  branches  qi 


The  Imperial  Constitution  29 

Imperial  enterprise.  If  these  do  not  suffice,  the  Federal 
States  are  caUed  upon  to  contribute  towards  the  deficit  in 
proportion  to  their  population. 

Section  XIII,  with  four  articles,  threatens  with  punishment 
any  undertaking  against  the  existence,  the  integrity,  the 
security  or  the  constitution  of  the  Empire,  and  any  insult 
to  the  Federal  Council,  the  Imperial  Parliament,  or  to  a 
member  of  either,  or  to  a  public  body  or  official  of  the  Empire 
while  carrying  out  his  duties,  or  in  connection  with  his  office, 
by  word  of  mouth  or  wxiting,  in  print  or  picture. 

Section  XIV,  the  last,  says  proposed  changes  of  constitution 
can  only  be  effected  by  law,  and  are  considered  as  rejected 
if  fourteen  votes  are  recorded  against  them  in  the  Federal 
Council. 


CHAPTER  IV 

Prussia's  preponderance 

The  position  of  the  States  of  the  Empire  towards  one  another 
is  a  question  of  the  greatest  interest.     It  cannot  be  denied 

that  Prussia  has  spread  its  influence  to  an 
the* States!      enormous  degree  since  the  foundation  of  the 

Empire.  Everywhere,  whether  in  Saxony, 
Bavaria,  Wiirttemberg,  Baden,  or  elsewhere,  one  can  see 
evidences  of  rapid  Prussianisation.  Whether  this  influence 
is  a  beneficial  one  remains  to  be  seen. 

The  German  Empire  has  hitherto  reaped  one  great  advan- 
tage from  its  division  into  a  number  of  small  and,  to  a  certain 
extent,  independent  States,  each  with  its  own  Court  and 
capital.  Owing  to  the  existence  of  these  smaller  seats  of 
Government,  the  intellectual  life  of  the  Empire  has  been 
spread  over  the  entire  nation,  and  not  all  drawn  towards  one 
centre,  as  in  some  other  countries. 

The  influence  of  Prussia  in  connection  with  parliamentary 
affairs  has  always  been  reactionary.     There  is  no  doubt  that 

at  the  present  moment  the  great  landowners 
Prussia         ^^  Prussia,  favoured  by  an  antiquated  system 

of  parliamentary  elections,  and  a  distribution 
of  voting  power  which  has  not  been  changed  for  fifty  years, 
control  the  policy  of  the  Empire  both  internal  and  external. 
There  exists  even  to-day  a  strong  feeling  of  antipathy  to 
Prussian  methods  in  the  other  States,  but  they  are  powerless 
to  oppose  them.  The  overwhelming  influence  conferred  on 
Prussia  by  the  fact  that  the  King  is  also  Emperor,  and  that 
the  interests  of  his  dynasty  are  allied  to  those  of  the  reactionary 
elements  in  his  kingdom,  must  make  itself  felt,  and  the  reac- 
tionary spirit  shows  few  signs  of  weakening.  Prussia  also 
feels,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  was  chiefly  as  a  result  of  her 
military  strength  that  the  Empire  was  formed,  that  she  has 


Prussia's  Preponderance  31 

a  right  to  have  the  principal  role  in  Imperial  affairs,  and  she 
maintains  that  position  with  great  force. 

Prussia  has  also  another  instrument  in  her  hands  by  which 

she  can  usually  force  her  will  on  the  other  States.     The  Federal 

Council,  as  has  been  declared  in  the  Consti- 

In  tjie  Federal   ^ution,  has  the  power  to  reject  any  proposed 

change  of  Constitution  of  the  Empire,  even 

although  the  representatives  of  the  people  in  the  Imperial 

Parliament  have  approved  of  it. 

A  further  important  factor  in  the  position  of  Prussia  towards 
the  other  Federal  States  is  the  fact  that,  owing  to  the  gradual 
extinction  of  some  of  the  reigning  princely  dynasties,  a 
considerable  portion  of  their  territories  will  at  some  future 
time  fall  into  Prussian  hands.  The  succession  to  the  dynasties 
of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Reuss  (elder 
line),  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,  Baden,  Hessen,  Wiirttem- 
berg,  Oldenburg,  Saxe-Altenburg  and  Saxe-Weimar  is  very 
scantily  provided  for  as  regards  male  heirs,  and  in  many  of  these 
cases  there  is  a  provision  that  the  succession  shall  eventually 
fall  to  the  King  of  Prussia,  in  other  words,  the  Emperor. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  Imperial  idea  already  projects  far 

beyond  the  federal  idea.     Scarcely  anyone,  in  Prussia  at  least, 

ever  thinks  of  Bavaria,  Saxony  or  Wiirttem- 

^^^Id?r"^  berg  as  a  separate  State.  They  are  all  mere 
parts  of  Germany  and,  in  the  Prussian  mind, 
of  Prussia ! 

Yet  when  the  political  progress  of  Saxony,  Bavaria  and 
Baden  is  taken  into  consideration,  it  is  seen  that  those  States 
are  much  better  developed  than  is  Prussia. 

Bavaria,  for  instance,  has  since  1906  possessed  the  direct 

secret  vote  in  the  election  of  the  members  of  its  Diet,  which 

sits    in    Munich.     Every    citizen    who    has 

cfns^tion      completed  his  twenty-fifth  year  is  entitled  to 

the  franchise  if  he  pays  direct  taxation,  which 

means  that  he  must  have  an  income  of  £25  a  year.    Efforts 

are  also  being  made  to  reform  the  Second  Chamber,  which. 


32  Germany  of  the  Germans 

except  for  sixteen  life  members  appointed  by  the  Crown, 
consists  of  nineteen  princes,  two  Crown  officials,  two 
archbishops,  and  forty-seven  hereditary  nobles. 

Saxony  in  1909  obtained  a  reform  of  its  electoral  and 
parliamentary  system,  which  had  until  then  been  as  old-world 
as  that  of  Prussia.  Even  now,  however,  a 
Reform  in  difference  is  made  between  the  working  and 
the  other  classes  of  the  population.  It  is  true 
that  under  the  new  system  every  man  has  a  direct  secret  vote 
at  the  age  of  twenty-five,  but  State  and  municipal  officials 
as  well  as  men  with  incomes  of  over  ;f80  a  year  and  small 
landowners  are  accorded  a  second  vote,  while  persons  with 
over  £1 10  and  officials  with  over  £95  a  year  obtain  a  third  vote. 
Men  belonging  to  the  liberal  professions — lawyers,  doctors, 
clergymen,  engineers,  chemists  and  technical  experts — and 
others  who  can  produce  a  certificate  of  higher  education  are 
permitted  four  votes,  as  are  also  men  with  more  than  ;fl40 
and  officials  with  £125  income.  The  Parliament  is  to  be 
renewed  in  future  in  its  entirety  every  six  years  instead  of, 
as  formerly,  a  third  every  two  years.  The  result  of  the  first 
election  under  the  new  system  was  the  return  of  twenty-five 
Socialists  to  the  Diet,  where  hitherto  only  one  had  been  able 
to  obtain  a  seat. 

Baden  was  one  of  the  first  States  to  introduce  the  direct 
voting  system  and  manhood  suffrage  from  the  age  of  twenty- 
five.     As  a  result,  the  Socialists  have  secured 
^•*^^B  d°*^*     ^^^^  ^  strong  position  in  the  Diet  that  they 
were  in  1909  able  to  carry  the  election  of  a  vice- 
president  of  the  Chamber  from  their  ranks — ^the  first  time  on 
record  in  Germany  that  a  Socialist  has  occupied  such  a  position. 
In  contrast  to  the  liberal  spirit  of  some  of  the  other  States, 
the  political  conditions  prevailing  in  Prussia 
Mediaeval       ^^^^y  ^^^  ^^  designated  mediaeval.     According 
to  the  electoral    system,   every  male    aged 
twenty-five  is  entitled  to  a  vote  in  the  election  of  members 
to  the  Diet.    The  voters,  however,  are  divided  into  three 


Prussia's  Preponderance  33 

classes.  This  is  effected  by  taking  the  total  of  the  State  taxes 
paid  in  each  electoral  district  in  Prussia  and  dividing  it  into 
three  equal  amounts,  the  first  third  of  which  is  paid  by  the 
wealthy,  the  second  by  the  middle  class,  and  the  third  by  the 
workers.  The  first  class,  therefore,  consists  of  very  few 
people  ;  occasionally  only  one  person  pays  a  third  or  even 
more  of  the  taxes  levied  in  a  district.  The  second  class 
consists  of  a  somewhat  larger  number.  The  third  comprises 
all  the  workers,  some  of  whom  do  not  pay  any  direct  State 
taxes. 

Say,  for  instance,  the  first  class  comprises  1,000  men,  the 

second  3,500,  and  the  third  25,000,  which  is  about  the  actual 

proportion.     Each  of  these  bodies  then  pro- 

^o?V^teTs^^^  ceeds  to  the  selection  of,  say,  100  members 
,  of  what  is  known  as  an  electoral  college,  who 
then  have  to  elect  the  member  of  Parliament.  The  election 
is  usually  a  mere  matter  of  form,  for,  with  very  few 
exceptions,  the  members  of  the  first  and  second  classes 
vote  together,  and  there  is  thus  a  majority  of  two  to  one 
in  favour  of  the  candidate  of  the  wealthier  classes,  so  that 
the  poorer  section  of  the  community  is  not  represented 
at  all.  5. 

The  actual  totals  of  the  three  classes  at  the  elections  of 
1903  were :  First  class,  239,000  voters ;  second  class, 
857,000  voters;  third  class,  6,000,000  voters.  Each  of 
these  classes,  as  explained,  chose  an  equal  number  of 
members  of  the  final  electoral  college,  and  the  result  of 
the  system  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  at  that  election  not  a 
single  Socialist  became  a  member  of  the  House,  although 
it  is  known  there  are  over  3,000,000  Socialist  voters  on  the 
register. 

Only  in  1907  did  the  people  secure  a  few  seats,  seven  in  all, 
and  this  shocked  the  reactionary  parties  which  had  hitherto 
had  the  entire  monopoly  to  such  an  extent  that  they  found 
means  to  invalidate  some  of  the  elections. 

Even  in  Prussia  itself  there  is  a  clearly  cut  division  which 

3— (2391) 


34  Germany  of  the  Germans 

still  further  strengthens  the  hands  of  the  feudal  nobility  and 

great  landowners,  who  stoutly  fight  for  the 

Stt-encth        continuance  of  existing  conditions,  in  spite  of 

the  fact  that  the  Emperor  himself,  as  King  of 

Prussia,  has  promised  reforms. 

The  six  eastern  provinces  of  Prussia — East  and  West 
Prussia,  Brandenburg,  Pomerania,  Posen,  and  Silesia — are, 
with  the  exception  of  the  city  of  Berlin,  which  is  in  Branden- 
burg, entirely  agricultural,  and  the  seats  of  the  ancient  nobles 
are  virtually  all  there.  These  six  provinces  return  225 
members  to  the  Prussian  Diet,  as  representatives  of  14,800,000 
inhabitants,  while  the  seven  western  provinces — Sachsen, 
Schleswig-Holstein,  Hohenzollern,  Hanover,  Westphalia, 
Hessen-Nassau,  and  the  Rhine — where  industries  have  been 
developed  largely,  return,  together  with  the  city  of  Berlin, 
only  218  members  for  a  population  of  22,400,000. 

The  same  proportion  exists  in  the  representation  of  the 
country  in  the  Prussian  House  of  Lords,  where,  however,  the 
members  are  either  hereditary,  nominated  by  the  King  for 
life,  or  are  entitled  to  seats  as  high  officials.  The  six  eastern 
agricultural  provinces  send  200  members  to  the  House  of 
Lords,  while  the  seven  western  industrial  provinces,  including 
Berlin,  send  only  118. 

The  Prussian  Upper  House  is  not  simply  conservative  in 

its  tendencies — it  is  reactionary.     Its  members  for  the  most 

part  regard  even  the  Diet — elected,  as  has 

Prussian        ^^^^    ^^^^^    ^^    ^^    antiquated    system    and 

consisting  almost  entirely  of  conservative 
elements — as  far  too  progressive,  and  they  accordingly  place 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  all  legislation. 

The  internal  administration  in  Prussia  is  carried  on  by 
one  of  the  most  complicated  systems  in  existence,  and  even 

the  Kaiser,  who  is  wont  to  regard  the  con- 
^^'s'stem^*'^^   tinuance  of  political  conditions  in  that  State 

as  necessary  to  the  support  of  his  dynasty, 
has  recognised  the  need  for  reform  and  ordered  a  commission 
to  inquire  into  the  subject. 


Prussia's  Preponderance  35 

One  of  the  provincial  councillors,  in  a  speech  in  the  Prussian 
Diet,  called  for  the  abolition  of  the  greater  part  of  the  official 
machine,  and  demanded  decentralisation,  simplification  and 
acceleration  of  work.  At  the  present  moment  even  the  most 
minute  details  of  administration  are  referred  to  the  Ministry 
in  Berlin,  thus  occasioning  an  amount  of  writing  from  one 
office  to  another  and  from  inferior  to  superior  officials  that  is, 
to  say  the  least,  quite  unwarranted.  The  officials  in  the 
Ministry  have,  for  the  most  part,  passed  all  their  official  lives 
in  Berlin,  and  know  nothing  whatever  about  the  various 
districts  on  whose  affairs  they  have  to  give  decisions. 

The  provincial  councillor  has  in  Prussia  the  most  extensive 
political  influence.  He  has  the  right  to  reject  the  appointment 
of  school  inspectors,  he  can  release  men  from 
Provincial  their  military  obligations,  he  can  reduce  the 
Power.  taxes  when  he  regards  the  taxpayer  as  having 
some  claim  to  a  reduction  on  account  of 
misfortune  or  otherwise,  he  decides  the  provision  for  orphans 
and  aged  persons,  he  has  the  granting  or  refusal  of  infirmity 
pensions  in  his  hands,  he  decides  disputes  about  sickness 
insurance,  and  in  many  other  departments  of  life  he  exercises 
control.  As  virtually  all  of  these  officials  are  appointees  of 
the  feudal  nobility  and  great  landowners,  and  in  their  official 
capacity  are  in  possession  of  the  information  obtained  by  the 
police  as  to  the  political  opinions  of  the  inhabitants  of  their 
districts,  they  are  placed  in  a  position  which  enables  them,  in 
case  they  are  inclined  to  utilize  their  power,  to  bring  con- 
siderable pressure  to  bear  on  the  people  at  times  of  parlia- 
mentary elections.  In  the  smaller  towns  of  the  provinces, 
the  correspondence  of  the  local  councils  with  the  central 
government  must  pass  through  the  hands  of  the  provincial 
councillor  on  its  way  to  its  final  destination,  and  his  annota- 
tions on  the  documents  are  given  the  first  attention  by  the 
administrative  officials. 

Whether  the  inordinate  influence  thus  placed  in  the  hands 
of  men  who  are  dependent  on  the  favour  of  the  feudal  nobility 


36  Germany  of  the  Germans 

for  their  positions  is  ever  exercised  is,  naturally,  a  question 
which  a  foreigner  is  incapable  of  responding  to.  Charges 
of  that  nature  are,  however,  constantly  made  by  the  organs 
of  the  progressive  parties. 

Germany  is  burdened  with  three  questions  of  nationality — 

the  Alsace-Lorrainean  in  the  west,  the  Danish  in  the  north 

in  Schleswig-Holstein,  and  the  Polish  in  the 

NalionaJitv  ^^^^'  ^^^Y  ^^^  ^^  entirely  separated  from 
each  other,  and  each  offers  difficulties  of  its 
own  to  be  overcome. 

The  problem  of  the  future  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  where  the 
population  had  for  many  generations  been  under  the  influence 
of  French  culture,  only  to  be  suddenly  transferred  to  entirely 
different  influences  after  the  war  in  which  they  were  conquered 
by  Germany,  appears  to  be  settling  itself  gradually.  The 
people,  especially  those  of  the  poorer  classes  of  society,  are 
losing  touch  rapidly  with  French  traditions.  Only  among  the 
older  inhabitants  and  in  the  higher  classes  of  society  is  French 
generally  spoken.  They  are,  however,  not  becoming  really 
Germanised.  They  tend  to  form  a  class  apart  both  from 
French  and  Germans. 

The    people    of    the    conquered    provinces    are    striving 

constantly   for   a   system  of  self-government,  with   a  local 

parliament.     At    present    there    is    what    is 

The  Conquered   j^^Q^n  as  a  provincial    assembly,   which    is 

elected  by  indirect  voting  and  has  no  real 

power  to  legislate. 

The  two  provinces  until  now  have  been  given  no  voice 
whatever  in  the  Federal  Council,  although  efforts  to  obtain 
representation  in  that  body  have  often  been  made.  They 
have,  however,  always  failed,  as  the  provinces  have  no 
constitution  and  do  not  possess  a  ruler.  They  are,  therefore, 
on  a  different  footing  from  that  of  the  States  of  the  Empire, 
which  have  hitherto  opposed  the  granting  of  representation 
because  they  argue  that  if  the  governor  of  the  provinces 
nominates  the  members  of  the  Federal  Council  it  will  mean 


Prussia's  Preponderance  37 

only  the  strengthening  of  the  position  of  Prussia,  as  the 
Emperor,  who  is  also  King  of  Prussia,  appoints  the  governor, 
who  would  consequently  act  as  Berlin  desired. 

The  Polish  question  is  a  much  more  serious  one.  In  the 
Polish  provinces  of  Prussia  the  inhabitants  do  not  affect  to 
conceal  their  dislike  of  their  rulers,  and  the 
^  ^^*^^  Prussians  do  not  take  the  best  measures  to 
acquire  their  goodwill.  The  attempted  colo- 
nisation of  the  provinces  with  artisans  and  German  farmers 
has  not  achieved  much  success,  as  the  Poles  have  shown 
themselves  just  as  acute  as  their  masters  in  driving  bargains. 
The  use  of  the  Polish  language,  too,  is  extending,  despite  all 
repressive  measures  in  schools  and  churches.  The  Govern- 
ment has  tried  the  offering  of  rewards  in  order  to  win  some 
of  the  people  over,  but  with  small  results.  The  Poles  are  not 
permitted  to  enter  the  Government  service  unless  they 
transform  their  names  into  German. 

The  Danish  question  is  at  times  rather  acute,  but  the  people 

of  Schleswig-Holstein,  among  whom  are  many  old  German 

inhabitants,  are  gradually  accustoming  them- 

^r^n^R^e  ^^^^^^  *°  German  rule.  Many  of  the  sons  of 
the  original  Danish  population,  it  is  true, 
prefer  to  emigrate  to  America  rather  than  submit  to  German 
allegiance,  and  in  some  families  it  is  still  the  custom  to  send 
the  children  to  school  over  the  border  in  Denmark,  so  that 
they  may  keep  in  touch  with  the  Danish  language,  but  the 
majority  of  the  people  are  contented  with  the  new  conditions 
and  cause  no  trouble  to  the  Government. 


CHAPTER  V 

IMPERIAL   PARLIAMENT 

It  has  often  been  said,  and  with  much  truth  if  results  are 
to  be  counted,  that  the  German  nation  is  puerile  in  politics. 
On  every  side — except  among  the  Socialists  and  extreme 
Radicals,  who  argue  that  restricted  opportunity  is  to  blame 
for  the  apparent  lack  of  political  instinct — one 
UnripenMs       hears  the  assertion  in  Germany  that  the  people 
are  not  ripe  for  Parliamentary  government. 
It  strikes  a  foreigner  as  strange  that,  wherever  he  goes,  he 
should  hear  such  an  argument  in  connection  with  the  popula- 
tion of  a  nation  which  is  undoubtedly,  as  far  as  education  is 
concerned,  in  the  van  of  the  world's  progress.     The  dogma 
is  fostered  in  every  way,  not  only  by  officials  and  the  feudal 
landowners,  but  by  the  State  clergy ;  and  many  of  the  people,  by 
force  of  hearing  it  so  often,  have  come  to  believe  it  themselves. 
Even  the  Socialist  movement,  with  its  advanced  ideas  and 
widespread  propaganda,  has  not  succeeded  in  affecting  the 
enormous  class  of  Germans  who  appear  absolutely  happy  in 
being  governed.     Luckily  for  them,  their  public  officials  are 
honest  and  generally  efficient  ! 

It  is  certainly  a  fact  that  the  best  thinkers  of  the  nation 
do  not  take  part  in  its  politics.     Germany  is  still,  politically, 
marking  time,  not  moving  from  the  place  she 
^meT^        occupied   before   the   Empire   was   founded. 
The   men  of  progress — the  great  industrial 
leaders  who  have  done  so  much  to  raise  Germany  to  its  present 
prominent  position  among  the  commercial  nations  of  the 
world — have  hitherto  almost  entirely  ignored  the  internal 
political  controversies  which  have  occurred  since  the  formation 
of  the  Empire.     They  have  been  too  much  occupied  in  devel- 
oping the  great  resources  of  the  country  formerly  allowed  to 
go  to  waste. 
The  feudal  landowners  and  multitudinous  petty  nobility 

38 


Imperial  Pariiament  39 

have  been  accustomed  for  centuries  to  the  exercise  of  prac- 
tically despotic  power  over  the  labouring  classes.  They  have, 
since  the  organisation  of  the  Imperial  Parliament,  owing  to 
the  lack  of  interest  of  the  captains  of  industry,  who  are 
naturally  more  liberal-minded,  been  able  to  hold  their  own 
against  the  tide  of  popular  desire  to  participate  in  government. 

The    Imperial    Parliament,    it   is   true,    is   fundamentally 

constituted  on  the  basis  of  one  of  the  most  extensive  suffrages 

in  the  world.     It  is  elected  every  five  years 

P   I'am^t      *^  ^^  intents  and  purposes  by  universal  and 

direct  manhood  suffrage,  and  by  means  of 

a  secret  baUot.     Every  man,  unless  a  criminal  or  a  lunatic, 

has  a  vote  from  the  age  of  twenty-five.     There  are  nearly 

14,000,000  qualified  voters. 

While  possessing  this  most  democratic  suffrage,  the  Parlia- 
ment in  which  the  people's  representatives  sit  is  yet  quite 
reactionary  in  spirit. 

Unfortunately  for  the  Liberal  parties,  the  constituencies 
were  formed  at  a  time  when  Germany  was  much  more  of  an 
agricultural  nation  than  it  is  now.  Despite  the  enormous 
changes  that  have  occurred  through  the  development  of 
industry  and  the  consequent  concentration  of  the  more  intel- 
ligent and  enterprising  people  in  large  cities  and  industrial 
centres,  no  change  in  the  boundaries  of  the  constituencies 
has  been  made.  The  consequence  is  that  rural  districts  are 
often  largely  over-represented,  while  urban  districts  do  not 
get  anything  like  a  fair  share  of  representation.  For  instance, 
Berlin,  according  to  its  population,  is  entitled,  proportionally 
to  the  number  of  inhabitants  in  the  Empire,  to  thirteen  or 
fourteen  seats  in  the  Imperial  Parliament,  but  has  only  six. 

An  instructive  idea  of  this  inequality  of  representation  may 

be    obtained    from   the    figures  of    the    last 

Co'^tlSfes.   election,    in    1907,   when  the    Conservatives 

polled  1,549,741  votes,  and  secured  85  seats, 

or  one  for  every  18,232  votes;    the    Centre  with  2,145,098 

votes  secured   104  seats,  or  one  for  every    20,626    votes ; 


40  Germany  of  the  Germans 

the  National  Liberals  with  1,715,584  votes  secured  56  seats, 
or  one  for  every  30,635  ;  the  Radicals  with  1,163,279  votes 
secured  43  seats,  or  one  for  every  27,054  votes ;  the  Anti- 
Semites  with  281,633  votes  secured  17  seats,  or  one  for  every 
16,566  votes,  while  the  Socialists  with  3,259,029  votes 
secured  only  43  seats,  or  one  for  every  75,781  votes. 
If  the  Socialist  voters  were  represented  in  the  same  ratio 
as  the  Conservatives  they  would  have  178  members  in  the 
Reichstag,  almost  half  the  House. 

The  majority  of  the  Reichstag  that  was  the  direct  cause  of 
Prince  Billow's  fall  from  power,  consisting  as  it  did  of  the 
Conservatives,  the  Clericals  and  the  Poles,  represented  only 
3,992,736  voters,  while  the  minority,  consisting  of  the  Liberal 
and  Radical  parties,  some  of  the  free  Conservatives  and  the 
Socialists,  represented  6,948,552  voters. 

The  members,  who  are  paid  an  indemnity  for  every  sitting 
they  attend,  are  drawn  from  the  following  professions  or 
callings :  agriculturists,  106 ;  Hberal  pro- 
^pSd^"  fessions  (including  37  authors,  67  lawyers, 
21  clergy,  24  teachers,  7  doctors,  63  State, 
municipal  and  private  officials,  and  1  artist),  220 ;  manu- 
facturers, 21  ;  small  traders  and  artisans,  20 ;  commercial 
men,  13 ;    and  independent  gentlemen,  17. 

No  fewer  than  72  of  the  members  belong  to  the  nobility ; 
200  have  served  in  the  Army  or  Navy ;  240  have  had  a  univer- 
sity education ;  188  are  also  members  of  the  separate  State 
Parliaments  ;  45  are  under  forty  years  of  age  and  the  remain- 
ing 352  over  that  age  ;  220  are  Protestants,  141  Catholics, 
18  unsectarian,  and  3  Jews,  while  15  are  atheists  or  decline  to 
state  their  religion. 

The  Reichstag,  as  well  as  the  minor  State  Parliaments,  is 
remarkable  for  the  hair-splitting  differences 
Many  between    many   of   the  fractions.      This   is 

probably  brought  about  by  the  fact  that  the 
Parliament  does  not  have  any  real  participation  in  the  Govern- 
ment.    The  Ministers  are  not  chosen  from  among  the  members 


>^  Of   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 
£>%LIF01<11S 


Imperial  Parliament  41 

of  the  House,  are  not  members  of  any  political  party,  and 
are  responsible  only  to  the  Chancellor  and  the  Emperor.  As 
the  people's  representatives  are  thus  shut  out  from  public 
office,  they  spend  much  of  their  time  in  debating  theoretical 
differences  among  themselves. 

There  is  also  a  great  lack  of  oratorical  talent.  Rarely  does 
one  hear  a  great  speech  delivered  in  the  House.  The  speakers 
appear  to  desire  to  express  themselves  as  though  they  were 
reading  from  a  book,  and  their  utterances  do  not  seem  to  be 
spontaneous.  The  Socialist  members,  however,  must  be 
excepted  from  this  rule.  They  at  least  have  mastered  the 
art  of  political  oratory,  and  of  saying  clearly  what  they 
mean. 

It  is  argued  by  many  that  political  and  oratorical  talent 

would  grow  among  the  people  and  their  elected  representatives 

if  a  system  of  Parliamentary  government  were 

^^*Gov^"°*  introduced.  People  with  real  abiUty  would 
then,  it  is  contended,  spontaneously  come  to 
the  front.  Be  that  as  it  may,  up  till  now  the  Government  of 
the  Empire,  as  well  as  of  the  many  States  of  which  it  is 
composed,  is  not  in  the  hands  of  the  people,  but  is  conducted 
by  administrative  officials  over  whose  appointments  the 
people  have  no  control. 

The  Reichstag  has  the  right  to  grant  or  to  refuse  supplies, 
but  on  the  only  occasions  in  which  it  has  exercised  its  power 
contrary  to  the  wishes  of  the  Government,  it  has  been  imme- 
diately sent  about  its  business.  This  has  happened  on  four 
occasions — in  1878,  when  the  House  was  dissolved  because  it 
refused  to  pass  the  repressive  bill  introduced  by  Bismarck 
against  the  Socialists  ;  in  1887  and  1893,  when  the  majority 
declined  to  vote  increases  in  the  Army  ;  and  in  1906,  when  the 
Colonial  policy  of  the  Government  was  rejected.  On  each 
of  these  occasions  the  result  of  the  new  elections  was  the 
return  of  a  majority  for  the  Government  proposals :  not 
because  the  people  were  in  favour  of  them,  but  because  the 
voters  were  awed  by  the  Government's  firm  stand. 


42  Germany  of  the  Germans 

That  the  Government  should  consider  itself  as  the  servant 

of  the  public  with  the  duty  of  carrying  out  the  will  of  the 

people  is  inconceivable  to  German  Ministers 

Mere^Organ^  and  State  officials.  Parliament  is  to  them 
a  mere  organ  whose  duty  it  is  to  agree  with 
their  policy.  The  members  of  Parliament  may  suggest 
improvements  to  Ministers'  proposals,  but  their  co-operation 
in  the  work  of  law-making  ends  there.  Ministers  have  become 
so  much  accustomed  to  an  Imperial  Pariiament  in  which  no 
party  has  ever  had  a  majority  that  they  have  virtually  ceased 
to  look  on  it  as  more  than  a  passive  factor  in  law-making. 
They  have  always,  or  nearly  so,  been  able  to  secure  a  majority 
by  shuffling  the  small  groups  together,  and  have  thus  retained 
their  almost  absolute  power  to  carry  out  their  own  or,  rather, 
the  monarch's  desires. 

Yet  there  are  two  parties  which  exert,  owing  to  their 
splendid  organisation  and  discipline,  and  their  power  of 
making  themselves  heard,  a  great  amount  of  influence  over 
legislation. 

Although  neither  the  Centre,  or  Clerical,  party  nor  the 

Socialists  have  ever  secured  anything  approaching  a  majority 

in  the  Reichstag,   there  is  little  doubt  that 

^sTcSis^te^      the  attitude  of  each  of  these  parties  must  be 

considered  when  new  legislation  is  projected. 

Perhaps  the  Socialists — who,  in  spite  of  their  insignificant 
numbers  in  the  House,  are  supported  by  practicaUy  the  whole 
of  the  working  population — throw  the  heaviest  weight  into 
the  scale,  with  their  scathing  criticism  and  unveiling  of  abuses. 
The  Government,  even  in  the  time  of  Bismarck,  found  that 
they  were  a  very  powerful  force,  and  they  have  continually 
increased  their  numbers  of  voters  ever  since.  It  was  fear  of 
the  growth  of  Sociahsm  and  a  desire  to  arrest  its  progress 
which  caused  the  introduction  of  the  system  of  State  insur- 
ance that  has  turned  out  to  be  such  a  splendid  thing  for  the 
nation,  but  has  not  diminished  the  forward  march  of 
Socialism. 


Imperial  Parliament  43 

The  Centrists  take  a  different  standpoint.    Their  principal 

object,   at  the  time  of  the  formation  of  the  party  in  the 

early  seventies,  when  the  Kulturkampf  was 

P^itics  and  ^^  ^^  swing,  was  the  protection  of  the 
interests  of  the  Catholic  Church,  but  not 
always  quite  in  accord  with  the  views  of  Rome.  Now  that 
the  original  cause  of  their  existence  is  no  longer  in  evidence, 
they  form  a  party  whose  ultimate  action  can  never  be  known 
by  what  has  gone  before.  Always  prepared  to  serve  their  own 
ends,  sometimes  they  range  themselves  on  the  side  of  autocracy 
and  at  others  they  appear  almost  democratic.  As  a  general 
rule,  however,  they  are  much  more  reactionary  than  Liberal, 
for  they  argue  that  their  religious  interests  are  better  protected 
by  the  thoroughly  Conservative  parties  than  by  those  sections 
of  the  community  possessing  advanced  ideas,  which  in  their 
opinion  bring  danger  in  their  train. 

The  Conservatives,  of  which  there  are  two  groups,   are 

professedly  for  Empire  and  Emperor  before  everything  else, 

except  perhaps  the  defence  of  privileges  and 

^      '^^®^.         vested  interests,   which  they  endeavour  to 
Conservatives.  ,  '  .     -^  . 

protect  from  any  encroachment,  wherever  it 

comes  from,  while  many  of  them  would  not  resist  the  repeal 

of  the  laws  for  the  protection  of  labour. 

The  section  known  as  the  Free  Conservatives  consists  of 
the  less  autocratic  members  of  the  old  landed  nobility,  who 
have  begun  to  recognise  that  the  masses  of  the  people  have 
rights  as  well  as  duties.  In  the  House,  however,  their  point 
of  view  is  almost  identical  with  that  of  the  more  old-fashioned 
group. 

As  to  the  Liberals  and  Radicals,  who  should  stand  for  all 

that  is  best  in  the  constitutional  and  parliamentary  idea,  they 

are  at  present  weakened  by  division  into  many 

^  R^?^\l*"^     groups,  separated  sometimes  only  by  a  shade 

of  opinion,   but  the  two  opposite  extremes 

bordering  on  Conservatism  and  Socialism  respectively.   Among 

them  is  a  strong  leaven  of  agrarianism  and  protectionism. 


44  Germany  of  the  Germans 

The  Socialists  will  have  naught  to  do  with  them  and  the 
Centrists  and  Conservatives  use  them  only  when  they  have 
need  of  them.  There  is  undoubtedly  in  the  Liberal  and 
Radical  groups  the  making  of  a  really  great  party,  which,  if 
only  internal  bickerings  could  be  disposed  of,  is  destined  to 
lead  Germany  a  long  way  along  the  road  to  Parliamentary 
government. 

An  idea  of  the  lines  on  which  the  parties  or  groups  usually 

work  is  best  given  by  quoting  the  official  programmes.  Perhaps 

the  best  way  to  do  this  will  be  to  take  them 

Pro^armnes  ^^  ^^^^  ^^^  ^^  ^^^  House  from  right  to  left  of 
the  Speaker. 

First  come  the  Conservatives,  whose  fundamental  principle 
is  the  maintenance  of  present  conditions,  except  those  relating 
to  the  social  advancement  of  the  working  classes.  The  items 
of  the  party  programme  are :  German  unity  under  the 
Imperial  Constitution,  with  the  protection  of  the  independence 
of  the  single  States  composing  the  Empire  ;  steady  develop- 
ment of  public  and  private  rights  based  on  historical  founda- 
tions ;  strengthening  of  administrative  power  on  a  monarch- 
ical foundation ;  participation  of  the  people  in  law-making  and 
the  self-government  of  municipal  communities  on  the  principle 
of  utilising  the  organic  elements  of  the  people  instead  of  equal 
universal  suffrage ;  furtherance  of  sectarian  elementary 
schools ;  settlement  by  law  of  the  relations  of  Church  and 
State,  with  liberty  of  conscience  and  no  interference  by  the 
State  in  the  internal  affairs  of  the  Church  ;  combating  the 
favorisation  of  industrial  capitalism  by  the  encouragement 
of  agriculture  and  the  protection  of  small  traders  ;  combating 
social  democracy  by  protecting  the  honest  worker ;  support 
of  military  and  naval  armaments. 

Then  follow  the  Imperial  Party,  or  Free  Conservatives, 
who  adopt  practically  the  same  programme  and  nearly 
always  work  together  with  the  Conservatives,  except  that 
they  show  a  very  slight  leaning  to  Liberal  views  in  regard  to 
schools. 


Imperial  Parliament  45 

Next  to  these  are  the  Centrists,  who  are  strictly  clerical, 
and  a  party  entirely  separated  from  all  others.     Their  declared 

object  is  to  place  Catholics  and  Protestants  on 
De?res         ^"  equal  footing.       They  demand  complete 

freedom  for  the  Catholic  Church  in  matters 
of  Church  discipline  and  organisation.  The  programme 
reads  :  To  not  only  combat  every  attack  on  the  independ- 
ence of  the  Church  hierarchy,  on  the  development  of  religious 
life  and  the  expansion  of  Christian  activity,  but  also 
to  work  for  the  restoration  of  and  renewed  constitutional 
security  for  the  independence  of  the  rights  of  the  Church 
destroyed  by  recent  laws  ;  the  putting  into  practical  effect 
of  the  legal  equality  of  the  recognised  religions  ;  the  defence 
and  maintenance  of  the  Christian  character  of  the  marriage 
rite  ;  the  permission  of  Church  schools  and  the  real  carrying 
out  of  the  educational  freedom  promised  by  the  Constitution  ; 
the  repeal  of  the  Press  limitations  and  of  the  Law  of  Associa- 
tions ;  the  decentralisation  of  administration  and  the  self- 
government  by  the  people  in  parishes,  dioceses  and  provinces  ; 
the  limitation  of  Imperial  expenditure,  especially  for  the  Army, 
by  means  of  reasonable  shortening  of  the  period  of  military 
service  and  the  reduction  of  the  peace  effectives ;  equable 
and  just  distribution  of  the  burden  of  taxation  ;  maintenance 
and  encouragement  of  a  powerful  middle  class  of  independent 
citizens  and  peasants  ;  freedom  for  all  legal  efforts  towards 
the  solution  of  social  problems,  and  combating  the  principles 
and  agitations  which  threaten  property  and  social  order. 

The,  National   Liberals   form   a   sort   of   bridge   between 
Conservatives  and  Radicals.     They  are  essentially  patriotic 

in  sentiment,  upholding  the  existing  consti- 
Pa^S^^      tution  with  its  system  of  separate  States. 

They  seek  the  further  development  of  the 
Empire  as  a  world  power.  Members  of  the  party  are  left 
free  to  vote  as  they  please  in  regard  to  protective  tariffs.  The 
party  is  noted  for  its  participation  in  coalitions  in  support 
of  the  Administration,  and  has  often  succeeded  in  bringing 


46  Germany  of  the  Germans 

the  two  extremes  of  Radicalism  and  Conservatism  together. 
The  official  programme  contains  the  following  clauses :  It 
is  the  task  of  the  National  Liberals  in  questions  of  Imperial 
and  national  policy,  while  laying  stress  on  their  long-tried 
loyalty  to  Emperor  and  Empire,  to  uphold  towards  both  sides 
of  the  House  their  absolutely  independent  position,  which  is 
established  on  consideration  for  the  good  of  all,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  watch  over  the  old  Liberal  principles.  The 
party  considers  that  a  time  for  pause  has  been  reached  in  social 
politics,  so  that  time  may  be  given  for  the  proper  carrying  out 
of  those  laws  which  have  already  been  passed,  but  that  social 
requirements  should  continue  to  be  attentively  observed. 
The  party  holds  firmly  to  the  principle  that  economic  questions 
should  not  be  made  the  foundation  of  political  parties. 

The  Radical  party,  of  which  there  are  two  fractions,  demands 

in  its  programme  :  Equal  rights  for  aU  religions  and  all  classes  ; 

parliamentary  government  and  social  reforms 

R?ghts  °^  ^^  kinds ;    free  trade  in  all  necessities  of 

Hfe  ;   while  it  supports  necessary  expenditure 

on  armaments,  although  striving  for  the  shortening  of  the 

term  of  military  service. 

The  last,  but  not  the  least  important,  party — the  Socialists 
^s  very  extreme  in  its  demands.  Its  programme  contains 
demands  for  the  ownership  by  the  people  of  all  land,  mines, 
machines,  tools  and  means  of  communication,  and  equal 
rights  and  opportunities  for  all  in  everything.  The  German 
Socialists  have  hitherto  decHned  to  co-operate  with  any  other 
party  in  the  House.  They  stand  firm  for  unconditional 
Socialism.  They  participate  in  debates  on  all  subjects  with 
the  greatest  vehemence,  bring  skilful  arguments  into  the 
discussions  on  all  occasions,  and  furnish  some  of  the  best 
speakers  in  the  Parhament. 

Various  groups  consisting  of  a  few  members  each  have 
been  formed  for  the  protection  of  particular  interests.  They 
have  little  influence  on  politics  and  on  general  questions  vote 
just  as  the  moment  takes  them. 


CHAPTER  VI 

OFFICIALDOM 

State  control  is  taking  a  continually  extending  part  in  the 

economic  life  of  Germany.    Scarcely  any  feature  of  life  is  left 

in  which  the  State  does  not  have  some  direct 

(S^ntrol         ^^  indirect  influence.     It  protects  agriculture 

and   industry  from   foreign   rivalry,   forbids 

unfair  competition  in  internal  trade,  looks  after  the  welfare 

of   the   workers,   controls   the   exploitation   of   women   and 

children,  arranges  the  hours  of  labour,  and  sees  that  the 

workers  are  accorded  the  necessary  meal  times,  while  it  also 

enforces  compulsory  thrift  and  hygiene,  and  insures  workers 

against  sickness,  accident,  infirmity  and  old  age. 

Besides  all  these  branches  of  State  control,  the  Government 
wisely  provides  for  the  general  education,  organises  police 
protection  and  the  administration  of  justice,  and  it  goes  further 
by  entering  into  trade,  possessing  and  working  its  own  coal  and 
potash  mines,  running  railways,  cultivating  forests  and 
monopolising  the  post,  telegraph,  and  telephone  services. 

Then  the  municipalities  supply  gas,  electricity  and  water, 

care  for  the  poor  and  the  insane,  look  after  the  sick,  run 

tramways,  public  baths  and  libraries,  under- 

Interests^       take  the  making  of  roads,  control  the  markets 

and  a  host  of  other  works  of  public  utility. 

Germany  is  undoubtedly,  owing  to  its  many  and  extensive 

State  and  municipal  enterprises,  the  country  where  most 

officials  are  employed,  unless  the  despotic  bureaucracy  of 

Russia  be  taken  into  account. 

A  rough  calculation  shows  that  there  are  in  the  Imperial, 

State  and  municipal  service,  apart  from  the 

^Offidals!*^      Army  and  Navy,  no  fewer   than    2,188  832 

persons.     These    are   distributed  over  many 

occupations.  The  total  employed  by  the  railways  is  563,684 ;  by 

the  posts  and  telegraphs,  319,026  ;  in  the  police,  gendarmerie, 

47 


48  Germany  of  the  Germans 

prisons,  law  courts,  palace  guards,  and  the  diplomatic 
and  consular  services,  390,005  ;  as  teachers,  school  officers, 
librarians  and  museum  guardians  299,396 ;  in  the  hospitals, 
including  doctors,  dispensers,  nurses,  office  staffs  and  domestics, 
207,717 ;  in  forestry  and  game  preserving,  125,980  ;  in  the 
Church,  including  clergy,  missionaries  and  church  officials, 
58,738  ;   as  street-cleaners,  16,506  ;   and  in  cemeteries,  7,780. 

There  are,  besides  all  these,  thousands  of  tax  and  revenue, 
insurance  and  other  officials,  mining  and  tramway  employees, 
etc.,  whose  numbers  are  not  ascertainable,  but  who  probably 
bring  the  total  up  to  nearly  3,000,000. 

This  army  of  officials  grows  in  numbers  from  year  to  year, 
and  with  each  new  law  dealing  with 
^Numbers*"  sociological  problems  a  fresh  regiment  is 
added. 

"  For  the  people,  but  not  by  the  people  "  is  the  motto  that 
has  been  adopted  by  the  Empire  ever  since  Bismarck's  effort 
to  limit  the  spread  of  Socialism  by  introducing  State-enforced 
thrift. 

The  system  has  its  advantages  in  that  many  things  are 
well  ordered,  but  it  tends  to  create  a  governing  class,  which 
is  inclined  to  regard  itself  as  a  select  people  apart  from  the 
non-official  majority  of  the  nation. 

Another  danger  in  the  taking  over  by  the  State  of  many 

branches  of  production  lies  in  the  killing  of  individuality,  for 

the  State  measures  the  man  in  its  employ 

D^n'^r  ^^^y  ^^  proportion  to  his  producing  power 

for  the  State,  and  the  man  gradually  comes 

to  regard  himself  as  a  unit  which  has  only  certain  work  to 

perform,    and   when    it    is   performed    there    is  no  further 

impulsion  to   improve  his    own    position    either  physically 

or  intellectually,   and  consequently   both  he  and  the  State 

remain  continually  on  the  same  level. 

The  masses  of  the  people  in  Germany  are  always  treated 
by  the  official  classes  as  minors  requiring  guardianship  with 
many  restrictions.    Since  this  method  has  been  in  vogue  for 


Officialdom  49 

so  long  a  time,  the  Germans,  almost  to  a  man,  expect  all 
ameliorations  of  their  condition,  political  as  well  as  economical, 
to  be  proposed  by  the  administrative  authorities.  They 
would  not  dream  of  initiating  anything  of  the  kind 
themselves. 

The  working  of  this  system  of  bureaucratic  administration 
as  it  affects  some  classes  of  the  community  may  be  seen  from 

the  fact  that  a  Social  Democrat  is  not  per- 
Ixcluded        "fitted  to  hold  even  an  honorary  office  in  any 

country  district.  An  instance  of  this  was 
seen  a  short  time  ago  in  the  district  of  Potsdam,  where  a 
Socialist  was  chosen  by  the  inhabitants  of  Michendorf  as  school 
overseer.  The  provincial  councillor  refused  to  permit  him 
to  occupy  the  ofhce,  and  the  decision  was  upheld  by  the 
Ministry,  although  there  is  no  law  against  Socialists  holding 
such  an  office. 

It  has  been  asserted,  and  with  some  truth,  that  the  affairs 
of  the  Empire  are  regulated  by  the  15,000  feudal  nobles  and 
great  landowners  who  own  the  eastern  provinces  of  Prussia. 
From  among  this  class  come  all  the  higher  Prussian  and  many 
of  the  Imperial  officials,  most^of  the  diplomats  and  many  of 
the  officers  of  the  Prussian  army.  They  have  for  so  long 
held  sway  in  the  administration  of  the  country  that  they 
have  come  to  regard  themselves  as  the  State,  whose  duty  it 
is  to  govern  the  people. 

The  administration  is  absolutely  separated  from  any 
parliamentary  influence,  except  that  brought  to  bear  on  it 

by  its  traditional  dependence  on  and  support 
^""^Influ^ce!^  ^^  *^^  monarch,  in  whose  service  and  not  in 

that  of  the  people  it  imagines  itself  to  be. 
Every  official,  high  or  low,  would  indignantly  resent  being 
called  a  public  servant,  and  would  not  fail  to  assert  that  he 
was  a  State  or  Imperial  official,  as  the  case  might  be,  intending, 
in  his  own  mind,  to  explain  that  he  was  in  the  service  either 
of  one  of  the  ruling  princes  or  of  the  Kaiser. 

Even  the  highest  official  of  the  Empire  acts  on  the  same 

4— (9390 


50  Germany  of  the  Germans 

idea,  and  indeed  he  has  to  submit  to  no  other  control  than 
that  of  the  Sovereign. 

The  difference  between  the  position  of  the  German  Imperial 
Chancellor  and  that  of  the  Prime  Minister  of  a  State  under 
parliamentary  government  is  that  the  Chan- 
'^Cha^elllT'^    cellor's  first  duty  is  to  carry  out  the  Emperor's 
policy,   for  which  he  has  in  some  way  to 
gather  together  a  majority  in  the   Parliament,   which  he 
regards  as  a  necessary  evil ;   while  a  Prime  Minister  who  has 
become  such  owing  to  the  victory  of  his  party  at  the  polls 
has  simply  to  carry  out  the  desires  of  his  supporters,  who 
generally  represent  the  majority  of  the  people  of  the  country. 
The  Chancellor,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  has  merely  to  exercise 
a  certain  amount  of  manoeuvring  with  the  parliamentary 
parties  in  order  to  carry  through  the  policy  of  his  monarch, 
who  desires  the  country  to  be  ruled  in  the  main  by  himself 
alone,  and  virtually  without  consulting  the  will  of  the  people. 
The  present  holder  of  the  office  of  Imperial  Chancellor, 
Dr.   Theobald  von  Bethmann-HoUweg,   became  a  Prussian 
administrative    official    in    1882    and,    after 
Herr  von        passing  through  all  the  grades,  was  in  1905 
Hollweg."      selected  by  the  Emperor,  in  his  capacity  as 
King  of  Prussia,  to  fiU  the  office  of  Prussian 
Minister  of  the  Interior.     He  later  received  the  appointment 
of  Imperial  Minister  of  the  Interior  and  Vice-ChanceUor  of  the 
Empire.     In  these  positions  he  utilized  the  excellent  adminis- 
trative training  he  had  enjoyed  to  the  best  advantage,  under 
the   leadership  of   Prince  Biilow,  until  on  the  latter's  resig- 
nation in  July,  1909,  he  was  nominated  Chancellor  of  the 
Empire. 

The  new  Chancellor  comes  of  an  ancient  Prussian  family, 

which  has   had  many  connections  with  the 

^Re«>r?*^^     administration.    His  grandfather  was  Minister 

of  Education  about    sixty  years    ago.     The 

genealogy  of  the  family  has  been  traced  back  as  far  as  1287, 

when  a  member  of  the  family  was  nominated  by  the  then 


Pholo  by 


Diihren 


HERR    VON    BETHMANN-HOLLWEG 


^  Of   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


Officialdom  51 

Markgrafs  Konrad  and  Otto  Brandenburg  as  collector  of 
duties  in  Osterburg.  Then  in  the  years  from  1300  to  1400 
several  Bethmanns  held  municipal  offices  and  others  belonged 
to  the  clergy.  After  1400  the  family  was  well  known  in 
commerce  and  also  as  owners  of  house-property,  and  a 
manuscript  is  still  in  existence  relating  to  a  loan  made  by  a 
Bethmann  to  the  town  of  Goslar.  The  family  continued 
increasing  in  wealth  and  importance  throughout  the  centuries, 
devoting  their  energies  to  trade  and  banking. 

The  palace  allotted  to  the  Imperial  Chancellor  in  Berlin 

during  his  period  of  office  was  purchased  by  the  Imperial 

authorities    in    1875    for    ^^300,000.     Prince 

R    ^^nce        Bismarck    was    its    first    occupant,    having 

moved  from  the  neighbouring  house   in   the 

Wilhelmstrasse,   which  is  now  the  Imperial  Foreign  Office. 

The    palace  formerly  belonged    to    Prince    Radziwill,    who 

acquired  it  in  1795. 

The  country  seat  of  fhe  Imperial  Chancellor  at  Hohen 
Finow  has  been  in  the  possession  of  the  family  only  since 
1855,  when  Felix  von  Bethmann-Hollweg  purchased  the 
property,  for  £60,000.  He  made  the  estate  into  a  model 
farm,  and  was  made  County  Councillor  of  Upper  Bamim, 
later  becoming  a  Privy  Councillor,  Before  his  death  in  1900 
he  often  entertained  the  Emperor  at  shooting  parties,  and  this 
custom  has  been  continued  by  the  present  Imperial 
Chancellor. 

All   the   other   Imperial   Ministers   and   Ministers   of   the 

numerous  Federal  States  hold  office   as  a  purely  personal 

appointment  from  their  respective  sovereigns 

F^^TstatL    ^^^  ^^  entirely  unaffected  by  the  wishes  of 

the    parliaments    which    vote    the    budgets. 

There  are  no  fewer  than  seventy-two  Ministers  and  Secretaries 

of   State  in   the  kingdoms  and  principalities  of  which  the 

Empire  is  composed,  although  in  some  of  them  the  entire 

executive  and  legislative  power  is  placed  in  the  hands  of 

the  ruler. 


52  Germany  of  the  Germans 

From  the  Ministers  down  through  the  ranks  until  the  lowest 
grade  of  of&cial  is  reached,  the  dogma  of  irresponsibility  except 

towards  his  next  superior  in  position,  without 
Irresponsibility,  ^^ought   of   public   opinion,   is   carried.     No 

official  may  have  an  opinion  of  his  own  even 
outside  of  his  ofi&ce.  He  is  subjected  to  all  sorts  of  restric- 
tions, not  only  as  to  his  politics,  but  as  to  his  private  life. 
Should  he  attend  a  Socialist  meeting  or  belong  to  certain 
societies  or  pin  his  faith  to  any  other  than  the  State  Church, 
his  misdeed  is  certain  to  come  to  the  knowledge  of  his 
superiors  and  he  is  given  to  understand  that  he  may  not  think 
for  himself  unless  it  be  in  the  direction  desired  by  his  superiors. 
It  is  a  most  fortunate  thing  for  Germany  that,  with  so 
much  of  its  public  welfare  in  the  hands  of  officials  answerable 

only  to  the  ruler,  the  virtue  of  honesty  is 
^?^"^         ingrained  in  the  nation.     Only  very  rarely 

does  an  official  break  away  from  the  traditions 
and  defraud  the  public.  Each  does  his  work  and  permits 
nothing  to  interfere  with  it. 

The  loyalty  of  the  lower  ranks  to  their  superiors  is  note- 
worthy. This  probably  springs  from  their  army  training, 
for  in  order  to  become  an  official  or  employee  in  the  service 
of  the  Empire,  the  State  or  the  municipality,  the  candidate 
has  to  fulfil  Army  service,  and  for  many  positions  must  have 
attained  non-commissioned  rank.  This  is  the  case  in  the 
police  and  gendarmerie  and  some  other  public  services.  The 
Government  in  many  departments  reserves  half,  and  in  others 
a  large  proportion,  of  the  positions  for  worthy  soldiers,  who 
have  a  right  to  claim,  after  a  certain  service  in  the  Army, 
admission  into  the  civil  service. 

Perhaps  this  influx  of  non-commissioned  officers  into  the 

civil  service  accounts  for  the  rather  offensive 
The  Army       ^^^^  ^^  command  often  adopted  by  policemen, 

postmen,  railway  employees,  and  other  minor 
officials  in  Germany  towards  the  public.  In  many  cases 
it   probably  does   not    imply   wilful    rudeness,    but    arises 


Officialdom  53 

simply  from  the  habit  of  command  acquired  while  in  the 
Army. 

Public  servants  are,  however,  in  some  degree  encouraged 
by  the  authorities  to  regard  themselves  as  standing  on  a  higher 
level  than  other  people,  for  the  law  imposes  severe  punishment 
on  anyone  using  a  hasty  word  uttered  in  remonstrance  against 
an  official's  impoliteness,  despite  the  fact  that  in  many 
instances  the  official  is  the  creator  of  the  incident. 

With  all  this,  the  German  people  are  as  a  rule,  more  espe- 
cially in  Prussia,  quite  satisfied  with  the  system  as  it  is.  One 
scarcely  ever  hears  a  murmur  against  officialdom  except  from 
the  Socialists,  who  certainly  often  have  to  suffer  from  the 
repressive  harshness  of  the  authorities. 


> 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE   ARMY  IS   THE   NATION 

That  the  Army  is  the  people  can  perhaps  be  asserted  of 

Germany  more  than  of  any  other  nation.      Every  citizen 

considers   service   in   the   national   defensive 

NaSrS^Dutv  ^^^^^^  ^^  ^  natural  duty.  He  thinks  it  un- 
worthy of  any  nation  that  its  men  should  need 
to  have  attractions  offered  them  in  order  to  induce  them  to 
take  their  proper  share  in  the  defence  of  their  country. 
Patriotism  is  a  cult  among  the  Germans.  The  German  youth, 
as  a  general  rule,  looks  forward  with  pleasure  to  the  day  when 
he  is  to  don  the  uniform,  and  if,  for  some  physical  reason,  he 
should  be  rejected  he  feels  that  he  has  not  quite  proved  his 
manliness. 

The  service  in  the  Army  certainly  refreshes  and  builds  up 
the  young  man's  physical  strength,  awakes  in  him  the  feehng 
that  he  is  performing  a  patriotic  duty,  and  increases  his  store 
of  energy  for  later  years.  The  direct  effect  of  the  service  on 
the  man's  mental  capacity  may  not  be  so  beneficial,  as  blind 
obedience  to  orders  and  unnecessarily  strict  discipline  are 
rather  apt  to  destroy  initiative. 

Everyone  recognizes  that  the  Empire  was  founded  and  has 

been  kept  intact  by  the  Army,  and  the  popularity  of  the 

uniform  is  such  that  whenever  a  detachment 

p^^*""^        passes  the  people  turn  out  in  crowds  and, 

straightening  themselves  up,  march  along  in 

time  with  the  troops.     The  "  tramp,  tramp  "  of  the  soldiers 

seems  to  strike  a  sympathetic  chord  in  the  breast  of  every 

German — man  or  woman.     Sometimes  the  burden  of  the  cost 

is  the  cause  of  murmurs,  but  the  money  required  is  always 

voted  and  provided  for  by  taxation  or  loan. 

Everybody  is  liable  for  service.  Millionaires  must  serve 
shoulder  to  shoulder  with  peasants  and  artisans.     For  this 

54 


The  Army  is  the  Nation  55 

reason  the  soldier  and  sailor  are  treated  everywhere  with 
respect,  for  they  are  the  flesh  and  blood  of  all  classes,  and  when 
wearing  the  uniform  one  class  cannot  be  distinguished  from 
another. 

A  proposal  is  on  foot  to  place  a  supplementary  tax  on  the 
estates  left  by  persons  who  have  not  served  in  the  active  army, 
for  it  is  argued  that  those  who  really  serve  give  several  years 
of  their  time  to  the  State,  while  those  who,  on  account  of  a 
physical  deficiency  which  does  not  prevent  them  from 
following  their  trade,  are  reHeved  from  service  are  saving 
money,  and  they  should  give  some  substitute  to  the  State  in 
kind  instead  of  service.  Such  a  tax  formerly  existed  in 
Bavaria,  where  it  was  regulated  according  to  income.  It  was 
abolished  on  the  formation  of  the  Empire. 

One  is  struck  when  in  Germany  by  the  upright  figures  and 

firm  gait  of  the  men  oi  all  grades  of  society.     The  sloucher  is 

an  absentee.     The  causes  of  this  are  to  be 

^^Nation  *^^  traced  to  general  service  in  the  Army,  with 
its  healthy  bodily  exercise  and  discipline. 
The  system  has  had  a  marked  effect  on  the  physique  and 
length  of  life  of  the  nation,  which  improve  and  continue  to 
improve  from  year  to  year.  It  is  said  by  German  doctors 
that  in  this  way  more  men  have  been  added  to  the  German 
nation  than  have  been  kiUed  in  battle  since  the  Army  existed, 
because  if  they  had  not  come  under  the  influence  of  healthy 
training  they  would  have  died  much  sooner  than  they  now  do, 
A  notable  consequence  of  the  general  liability  for  service  is 
that  even  the  men  who  have  not  been  called  on  to  join  the 
ranks,  owing  to  weakness  of  physique  or  some  slight  deformity, 
bear  themselves  uprightly,  trying  to  emulate  their  brothers 
who  have  been  trained.  Cleanhness,  too,  is  a  notable  feature 
of  the  German  nation,  for  while  the  young  men  are  in  the  Army 
they  acquire  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  value  of  hygiene. 
Tidiness  of  dress,  although  the  cut  and  fashion  may  not 
always  be  up  to  West  End  ideas,  is  also  universal  in 
Germany. 


56  Germany  of  the  Germans 

The  German  army  is — both  in  peace,  when  it  numbers 

something  over  600,000,  and  in  war,  when  it  may  comprise 

every  healthy  adult  in  the  Empire  between  the 

^"^CWef  *^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^  ^^^  ^^'  ^^  something  up  to  5,000,000 
men — under  the  sole  command  of  the  Emperor. 
In  time  of  peace,  however,  the  three  army  corps  of  Bavaria, 
the  two  of  Saxony  and  the  single  one  of  Wiirttemberg  have 
their  own  internal  organization,  although  they  form  part  of 
the  Imperial  Army  and  are  drilled,  armed  and  exercised  on 
the  same  system.  The  contingents  of  the  other  Federal 
States  are  considered  as  belonging  to  the  Prussian  Army, 
under  whose  administration  they  are. 

The  organisation  of  the  immense  force  available  for  military 
service,  although  not  an  easy  matter,  is  effected  with  remark- 
.    Q       .  able  simplicity.     From  his  earliest  boyhood 

every  German  knows  that  he  will,  if  physically 
and  mentally  sound,  form  a  unit  of  the  armed  forces  as  soon 
as  he  has  completed  his  seventeenth  year,  and  remain  on  the 
rolls  until  he  has  completed  his  forty-fifth  year.  The 
authorities  do  not  worry  him  about  his  liability,  however, 
until  he  reaches  his  twentieth  year.  In  the  meantime  he 
has,  in  most  cases,  passed  through  an  apprenticeship  to  his 
chosen  trade  or  profession,  or  has  adopted  a  calling  of  some 
kind.  Probably  he  has  also  become  a  member  of  the  local 
public  gymnasium,  where  he  has  acquired  the  rudiments  of 
drill  and  strengthened  his  muscles  in  preparation  for  his  army 
service.  In  the  early  months  of  the  year  in  which  he  com- 
pletes his  twentieth  year  he  must  present  himself  at  the 
district  recruiting  office  for  medical  examination  and  enrol- 
ment. Should  a  youth  be  absent  in  another  part  of  the 
Empire,  he  must  present  himself  there.  If  he  is  abroad,  for 
which  he  is  theoretically  compelled  to  request  leave  from  the 
military  authorities,  his  parents  or  guardians  must  report  that 
he  is  willing  to  serve,  and  he  is  usually  put  back  for  a  year  until 
the  next  enrolment.  When  neither  a  youth  nor  his  parent 
reports,  should  he   at   some  later   time  enter  Germany  he 


The  Army  is  the  Nation  57 

would  be  arrested  as  a  defaulter  and  placed  in  the  ranks 
immediately. 

The  recruiting  office  registers  all  the  details  as  to  stature, 
strength,  etc.,  and  earmarks  the  recruits  for  the  branch  of  the 
service  for  which  they  appear  to  be  best  fitted.  A  slight 
deformity  does  not  exempt  from  Hability. 

The  recruiting  commissioners  consist  of  a  doctor,  a  civil 

official  and  a  military  officer.     On  the  result  of  their  examina- 

^    „       .,       tion    depends    the    young    man's    military 

The  Recruits.     ,    ^  ^-,,  r  ui      •    j  / 

fortune.     There  are  four  possible  judgments 

— ^fit,  temporarily  unfit,  conditionally  fit,  and  permanently 

unfit. 

It  is  interesting  to  watch  the  recruits  as  they  enter  the 
commissioners'  cabinet — some  healthy  and  gay,  knowing  they 
will  surely  be  chosen,  gthers  trembling,  fearing  they  will  be 
rejected,  still  others  knowing  they  are  physically  excluded 
from  service.  The  examination  is  very  severe  and  as  they 
make  their  exit  some,  who  hitherto  knew  of  no  ailment,  are 
filled  with  despair,  having  been  told  by  the  doctor  that  they 
are  seriously  affected.  About  30  per  cent,  of  all  presented 
are  accepted  as  fully  fit  for  the  full  two  or  three  years'  service. 
Many  of  the  others — about  20  per  cent. — are  passed  at  once 
into  the  supplementary  reserve,  where  they  do  only  six  or 
eight  weeks'  training,  and  are  only  called  up  to  join  their 
regiments  to  fill  up  for  casualties  in  time  of  war.  Others — 
about  2  per  cent. — are  put  back  for  a  year  in  the  hope  they  will 
wax  stronger.  The  rejections  as  totally  unfit  number  about 
48  per  cent. 

The  regulations  as  to  stature  are  so  widely  extended  that 
most  men  presented  for  examination  are  liable  for  some  arm, 
but  no  one  shorter  than  5  feet  OJ  inch  is  accepted.  The 
average  stature  of  recruits  is  5  feet  5J  in. 

As  to  the  origin  of  the  recruits,  statistics  show  that  the 
agricultural  districts  and  small  towns  supply  the  greatest 
percentage  of  men  fit  for  service,  and  purely  industrial 
districts  the  smallest  percentage.     Villages  with  a  population 


58  Germany  of  the  Germans 

not  exceeding  2,000  furnish  64-15  per  cent.  ;  those  from  2,000 
to  5,000,  11-27  per  cent.  ;  towns  from  5,000  to  20,000,  1107 
per  cent.  ;  from  20,000  to  100,000,  7-37  per  cent.,  while  cities 
of  100,000  and  more  inhabitants  furnish  only  6*14  per  cent. 

The  soldiers'  education  is,  owing  to  the  strictness  of  the 
compulsory  school  system,  very  satisfactory.  Only  sixty-two 
men  in  the  entire  Army  were  at  the  last  recruiting  period 
entirely  illiterate. 

Recruits  selected  for  the  cavalry,  horse  artillery  and  mounted 

rifles  have  to  serve  three  years  in  the  active  army  ;   those  for 

the  other  arms  only  two,  but  the  latter  may 

l^rms  of        ^^  refused  permission  to  leave  the  country 

during  the  third  year. 

The  formalities  of  enrolment,  measurement  and  assignment 
to  a  corps  over,  the  recruit  returns  to  his  home,  where  he 
continues  his  ordinary  avocations  for  several  months  longer. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  same  year,  when  he  is  approaching 
the  age  of  twenty-one,  he  receives  the  order  to  join  his 
corps. 

The  departure  of  the  recruits,  of  whom,  of  course,  there  are 
many  from  the  same  district,  is  the  occasion  of  a  patriotic, 
although  sometimes  tearful,  outburst,  parents  and  friends 
accompanying  them  to  the  barracks  or  the  railway  station 
to  cheer  them  on  their  way. 

To  the  general  scheme  of  recruiting  there  are  numerous 
exceptions.  Any  youth  may,  for  instance,  at  eighteen  years 
of  age,  if  physically,  mentally,  and  morally  fit,  join  the  Army 
or  Navy  voluntarily  for  a  term  of  two  or  three  years,  except 
for  the  cavalry  and  horse  artillery,  in  which  he  may  enlist 
for  three  or  four.  These  voluntarily  enlisted  men,  of  whom 
there  are  about  40,000  in  the  annual  total  of  recruits,  may 
re-enlist  for  several  further  periods  if  they  attain  non- 
commissioned rank  during  their  first  enlistment.  Should  they 
remain  in  the  Army  for  twelve  years  they  are  entitled  on 
leaving  to  a  bounty  of  £40,  and  the  right  to  candidacy  for 
the  postal,  police  and  other  civil  services. 


The  Army  is  the  Nation  59 

Besides  this  class  of  voluntary  enlistments,  there  is  another, 
but  smaller  class  of  exceptions  from  the  ordinary  system. 
This  consists  of  young  men  of  superior 
education  who,  on  producing  certificates 
that  they  have  passed  a  severe  examination,  such  as  would 
fit  them  to  become  officers,  are  permitted  to  serve  as 
volunteers  for  a  period  of  one  year  only,  during  which  time 
they  pay  for  their  rations,  arms,  quarters  and  equipment, 
and  if  in  the  cavalry  or  artillery  for  their  horses.  They 
can  hire  one  from  the  authorities  for  £20  in  the  horse  artillery 
and  cavalry,  or  for  £1  10s.  in  the  field  artillery  or  army  service 
corps.  A  written  agreement  by  the  parents  or  guardians  to 
pay  the  necessary  amount  is  required. 

These  one-year  volunteers,  who,  owing  to  the  conditions 
connected  with  their  service,  naturally  belong  to  the  well-to-do 
classes,  number  about  10,000  annually  in  the  whole  Empire. 
In  order  to  secure  the  privilege,  they  must  have  passed 
(1)  the  examination  of  the  second  class  in  a  classical,  semi- 
classical,  or  modem  school  of  the  first  grade  ;  (2)  the  first 
class  of  a  preparatory  classical  school  or  modem  school  of 
the  second  grade  ;  (3)  the  passing  out  examination  of  a  com- 
mercial school,  secondary  school  or  school  of  industry  ;  (4)  a 
trades  school  or  upper  private  school.  The  privilege  is  also 
accorded  to  school  teachers,  doctors,  chemists,  veterinaries, 
theological  students,  and  to  youths  who  prove  their  ability 
in  any  artistic  or  scientific  profession  considered  of 
public  benefit,  while  even  mechanics  of  extraordinary  skill 
in  their  trade  and  actors  in  the  State  theatres  are  also 
admitted,  if  they  are  able  to  pass  an  elementary  educational 
examination. 

Proof  of  education  must  be  sent  in  to  the  recruiting  com- 
mission with  the  application  to  serve  as  a  one- 
Ed°°^ti  °^       y^^^  volunteer,  which  must   be   made  in  the 
eighteenth  year.    If  school  certificates  are  not 
forthcoming,  the  candidate  must  notify  his  readiness  to  undergo 
an  examination,  including  two  foreign  languages  chosen  from 


60  Germany  of  the  Germans 

Latin,  Greek,  English  and  French.  Candidates  may  also 
request  to  be  set  back  for  one  or  several  years  before 
serving,  but  not  later  than  their  twenty-fourth  year. 
They  may  choose  any  branch  of  the  Army  or  Navy  or 
any  regiment. 

Four  months  after  entering  the  Army  they  undergo  a  prac- 
tical and  theoretical  examination,  on  the  result  of  which 
depends  recommendation  as  officers  of  the  reserve  on  leaving. 
After  six  months'  service,  on  proving  their  efficiency,  they  are 
promoted  lance-corporal  and  after  nine  months  corporal,  and 
those  who  have  shown  their  capacity  to  become  officers  of  the 
reserve  then  undergo  a  further  examination  in  theory  and 
practice,  the  passing  of  which  entitles  them  to  promotion  as 
reserve  officer-aspirant.  Thereafter,  when  they  have  per- 
formed one  or  two  periods  of  drill  in  the  reserve,  they  may  be 
selected  as  lieutenant  by  the  officers  of  their  regiment,  with 
whom  the  entire  choice  of  their  comrades  rests. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  they  have  not  during  the  year  acquired 
sufficient  knowledge  of  a  soldier's  duties,  they  may  be  kept 
with  the  colours  to  undergo  further  training. 

There  is  a  still  further  class  of  exceptions,  consisting  of  the 
Mennonites,  or  Anabaptists,  whose  creed  forbids  them  taking 
an  oath  or  performing  military  duties.  These,  unless  they 
volunteer  for  service,  are  enrolled  in  an  unarmed  section  of  the 
forces,  such  as  the  hospital  orderlies,  military  artisans  or 
drivers,  or  else  they  do  duty  in  the  military  administration 
offices. 

Ordained  Catholic  priests  also  are  placed  at  once  in 
the  supplementary  reserve,  and  are  not  called  upon  to 
drill. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  deal  here  with  the  training  of  the  troops, 

which  is  virtually  the  same  in  every  country ; 

Sever^         but  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  discipline 

and  the  service   itself  are  very  severe,  and 

during  his  term  with  the  colours  no  effort  is  spared  to  make 

the  soldier  fully  acquainted  with  his  duties. 


The  Army  is  the  Nation  61 

Shooting  is  encouraged  very  extensively,  but  generally  in 
the  shape  of  volley-firing.  Independent  practice  at  targets 
is  never  extended  to  longer  distances  than  440  yards,  as  it  is 
considered  that  volley-firing  is  the  only  effective  musketry 
after  that  distance.  This  simplifies  the  instruction,  as  the 
soldier  has  not  to  worry  about  long  sighting  and  wind  allow- 
ances. He  is,  however,  put  through  plenty  of  practice  at 
the  shorter  ranges.  There  is  not  much  time  left  to  the  soldier 
for  sport  or  recreation,  and,  even  if  there  were,  the  private's 
pay,  which  amounts  in  the  line  infantry  and  garrison  artillery 
to  only  6s.  5Jd.  per  month,  and  in  the  guards  cavalry 
rises  to  9s.  TJd.  per  month,  does  not  afford  very  much  scope. 
Latterly  an  endeavour^ has  been  made  to  increase  interest 
in  outdoor  sports  on  Sundays  in  many  regiments,  but  hitherto 
the  soldier  has  preferred  to  spend  his  meagre  spare  time  in 
walking  out. 

The  barracks  are  generally  very  roomy  and  clean.     The 
soldier  is  warmly  and  well  clothed  and  the 

Well  Cared      j^^^^  -^  ^^^  good,  though  roughly  served. 

Cases  of  brutality  by  officers  and  noncoms 
against  the  men,  which  at  one  time  were  very  frequent,  are 
diminishing  rapidly  with  the  spread  of  education.  The  cases 
of  cruelty  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  authorities,  which 
number  about  500  annually,  not  a  large  proportion  among 
over  600,000  men,  are  usually  severely  dealt  with. 

It  is  a  rather  remarkable  fact  that,  even  after  the  soldier 
has  served  his  term  in  the  active  army,  he  clings  closely  to  his 
remembrance  of  his  regiment,  in  most  cases  becoming  a 
member  of  a  veterans'  society.  He  would  not  do  this  if 
universal  service  weighed  heavily  on  him  or  if  he  were  badly 
treated. 

The  service  with  the  colours  completed,  the  soldier's  duty 
to  his  country  has  not  ended.  He  is  then  attached  for  varying 
periods  to  the  different  classes  of  reserve,  as  may  be  seen  from 
the  following  table,  setting  forth  the  soldier's  entire  military 
life.     This  is  divided  thus  : — 


62 


Germany  of  the  Germans 


For  Infantry,  Engineers, 

Army  Service  Corps  and 

Cavalry,  Horse  Artillery 

Field  and  Garrison 

and  Mounted  Rifles. 

ArtiUery 

Yearf. 

Years. 

Active  army 

2 

3 

„      reserve 

5 

4 

5 

3 

2nd  div. 

6 

8 

Landsturm 

6 

6 

The  reserves  are  called  up  in  large  contingents,  sometimes 

as  many  as  300,000  men,  each  year  for  exercise  with  the  active 

_,     „  troops,  but  the  same  men  are  never  mobilized 

The  Reserves.     ,        ^  _^  ... 

two  years  m  succession.      iLvery  man  while 

in  the  reserve  of  the  active  army  may  be  called  to  do  112  days' 

drill,  but  as  a  rule  is  only  mustered  for  two  periods  of  about 

a  month  each.     When  he  passes  into  the  Landwehr,  or  second 

reserve,  he  is  brought  up  again,  except  when  a  cavalryman, 

on  several  occasions  for  from  7-14  days.     The  Landsturm,  or 

last  reserve,  only  attends  an  occasional  roll-call.     Noncoms 

and  reserve  officers  are  liable  to  more  frequent  calls  than  the 

privates.     The   supplementary   reservists   do   duty  in   that 

branch  of  the  service  for  twelve  years. 

The  Government,  however,  does  not  take  the  reservist 
away  from  his  civil  occupation  without  providing  for  his 
dependents.  Wives  of  reservists  are  entitled  to  claim  30  per 
cent,  of  the  usual  rate  of  workmen's  wages  in  the  district  where 
they  live,  while  for  each  child  a  further  10  per  cent,  is  allowed  ; 
but  the  whole  sum  granted  may  not  amount  to  more  than 
60  per  cent,  of  the  usual  rate  of  wages. 

The  question  of  providing  officers  for  this  vast  army  has 
become  a  serious  one  under  the  prevailing  conditions  of  com- 
mercial and  industrial  prosperity,  which  act 

^^Officers  °^  ^^  ^^^^  ^  great  attraction  to  men  of  energy. 
However,  there  is  an  extensive  leisured  class 
in  Germany,  consisting  of  the  nobility  and  large  feudal  land- 
owners, which  from  family  tradition  and  the  ancient  caste 
feeling  sends  many  of  its  sons  into  the  Army  as  officers.    Added 


The  Army  is  the  Nation  63 

to  these  are  the  civil  officials,  who  like  to  give  proof  of  their 
loyalty  by  placing  their  sons  to  the  Army  career. 

A  university  education  is  not  considered  necessary,  but  the 
passing-out  certificate  of  a  higher  classical  or  modern  school 
is  requisite  for  a  candidate  for  the  position  of  officer.  Many 
officers  enter  the  Army  in  this  way,  first  serving  six  months 
in  the  ranks,  but  known  as  aspirant-officers.  They  must 
during  this  period  attain  corporal's  rank.  Thereafter,  on 
giving  full  proof  of  their  education,  they  are  sent  to  a  military 
academy  for  nine  months,  when  they  undergo  a  theoretical 
and  practical  mihtary  examination.  They  then  return  to 
their  corps  as  ensigns  and,  if  the  regimental  officers  approve 
their  selection,  they  are  promoted  to  second  lieutenant,  which 
usually  occurs  from  eighteen  to  twenty-one  months  after 
first  entry  to  the  corps.  Bavaria,  however,  demands  the 
higher  qualification  of  passing  the  matriculation  examination 
for  a  university  from  those  entering  as  aspirants.  Conse- 
quently the  education  of  the  Bavarian  officer  is  usually  better 
than  that  of  the  officers  in  other  States  of  the  Empire. 

Another  source  for  the  provision  of  officers  is  formed  by 

the  cadet  schools,  of  which  there  are  a  number  in  Prussia, 

/-  J  ^  c  1.  1  Bavaria  and  Saxony,  where  sons  of  officers  and 
Cadet  Schools.        .    .,  ^  -,        ,    -,  r 

civil  servants  are  educated  from  a  very  early 

age  for  a  military  career.  They  are  subjected  throughout  to  very 
severe  tests  as  to  fitness.  Some  of  them  enter  the  Army  directly 
as  ensigns  and  must  then  wait  eighteen  months  for  promotion 
to  second  lieutenant,  while  others  remain  longer  in  the  cadet 
school  and  enter  the  Army  with  the  rank  of  second  Heutenant. 

There  are  25,559  active  officers,  2,282  doctors,  2,303  pay- 
masters and  691  veterinaries.  There  are  403  generals,  2,988 
other  staff  officers,  6,425  captains,  4,797  first  lieutenants  and 
10,946  second  Heutenants.  A  movement  has  been  started  to 
give  the  rank  of  sergeant-major-lieutenant  to  deserving  non- 
coms,  who  will  then  be  able  to  exercise  the  duties  of  officer 
should  the  number  of  the  latter  be  at  any  time  below  the 
estabhshment. 


64  Germany  of  the  Germans 

Considerable  outcry  has  recently  been  raised  against  the 
apparent  favouritism  shown  to  officers  who  have  inherited 
titles.  There  seems  at  first  some  reason  for  the  complaint, 
as  a  glance  through  the  lists  of  the  higher  officers  of  the  Army 
shows  few  untitled  names,  while  the  guards  regiments  and 
corps  stationed  in  large  cities  scarcely  ever  contain  an  officer 
who  is  not  of  the  nobility.  Those  regiments  stationed  on  the 
frontier  and  in  small  garrison  towns,  however,  are  mostly 
officered  by  untitled  men.  It  may  be,  of  course,  that  the  latter 
owing  to  their  less  favourable  financial  circumstances  choose 
to  serve  away  from  centres  where  the  social  life  calls  for  heavy 
expenditure. 

Taken  altogether,  the  German  officers  are  a  thoroughly 
loyal,  sincere,  hardworking,  sport-loving  and  certainly  efficient 
body  of  gentlemen,  in  the  real  sense  of  the 
^  EvirtWn^"^^  word.  Soldiers  before  everything  else,  they 
have  their  social  limitations,  but  it  may  be 
taken  as  certain  that  every  officer  in  the  German  Army  is 
continually  striving  to  improve  his  knowledge  of  his  profes- 
sion and  is  prepared  to  undergo  any  hardship  he  may  be  called 
upon  to  suffer  for  the  benefit  of  the  service. 

He  usually  enters  the  Army  at  nineteen  as  an  ensign,  has  to 
wait  one  and  a  half  years  before  becoming  second  lieutenant, 
five  or  six  years  later  is  lieutenant,  in  seven  years  more  captain, 
and  then  has  to  wait  another  12-13  years  before  reaching 
his  majority.  Then  promotion  is  somewhat  quicker  for  men 
of  proved  ability,  who  may  become  lieutenant-colonel  in 
another  two  years  and  full  colonel  six  years  later. 

During  this  long  period  the  officer  does  not  become  wealthy 
on  his  pay.  As  a  lieutenant,  he  receives  for  the  first  three 
years  £60  annually,  from  the  fourth  to  the  sixth  year,  ;f85  ; 
from  the  seventh  to  the  ninth,  ;f95  ;  from  the  tenth  to  the 
twelfth,  £110  ;  and  after  the  twelfth,  ;fl20.  As  captain  the 
pay  is  from  the  first  to  the  fourth  year,  £170  ;  from  the  fifth 
to  the  eighth,  £230 ;    and  the  ninth  year  and  after,  £255. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE   NAVY 

'*  Germany's  future  is  on  the  water,"  in  the  words  of  the 
present  Emperor,  creator  of  the  Imperial  Navy.     Before  the 

accession  to  the  throne  of  WiUiam  II  scarcely 
^*^ll^^  ^^'^     3.  thought  was  given  by  German  statesmen 

to  the  building  up  of  sea  power,  but  during 
the  twenty  years  of  his  reign  such  a  vast  evolution  of  ideas 
has  occurred  that  the  German  Empire  may  now  be  counted 
among  the  most  powerful  maritime  nations.  In  the  Emperor's 
opinion,  Germany  could  not  afford,  in  case  of  hostilities  with 
a  sea  power,  to  wait  on  the  defensive  within  her  land  borders 
for  the  enemy  to  come  and  attack.  She  must  be  prepared 
to  take  the  offensive  wherever  the  adversary  may  be  found. 
His  efforts  throughout  his  reign  have  had  this  end  in  view, 
perhaps  not  with  any  intention  of  aggression,  but  in  order  to 
feel  that,  if  necessary,  his  naval  force  might  be  able  to  play  its 
due  part  in  deciding  a  conflict  with  another  nation. 

It  must  be  confessed  that  he  has  been  remarkably  successful 
in  interesting  his  subjects  in  the  Navy.     The  Navy  League 

— ^which,  as  head  of  the  Navy,  the  Emperor, 

since  its  formation,  has  always  patronized, 
although  he  is  not  actively  connected  with  it — ^has  become  a 
most  powerful  organisation,  exercising  vast  influence  in  aU 
parts  of  the  Empire.  It  numbers  at  the  present  moment 
nearly  a  million  active  and  honorary  members,  despite  the 
recent  tribulations  through  which  it  has  passed  in  consequence 
of  the  part  some  of  its  leading  officials  had  taken  in  internal 
politics.  The  disturbing  elements  have  been  eliminated  and 
the  League,  confining  its  work  to  the  education  of  the  people 
in  naval  affairs,  hopes  to  build  up  a  fleet  as  powerful  on  the 
sea  as  the  Army  is  on  land.  It  issues  a  periodical.  Die  Flotte, 
dealing  purely  with  naval  affairs  and  which  has  attained  a 

65 

5— (23qi) 


66  Germany  of  the  Germans 

circulation  of  375,000.  It  arranges  for  frequent  lectures  on 
the  Navy,  with  moving  pictures,  in  all  the  big  cities.  Members 
living  far  from  the  sea  are  taken  on  excursions  to  see  the  fleet 
when  it  is  lying  in  one  of  the  naval  ports.  It  opens  all  over 
the  Empire  small  naval  exhibitions  for  the  assistance  of  sea- 
men's homes  and  to  pay  for  outfits  for  poor  boys  wishing  to 
enter  the  naval  service.  Through  its  influence  many  of  the 
newer  battleships  are  named  after  provinces  or  cities,  and  this 
simple  procedure  has  aroused  the  keenest  interest  in  the 
various  districts,  which  are  thus  reminded  of  their  direct  share 
in  the  fleet. 

The  "Father  of  the  Fleet,"  Grand  Admiral  von  Koester, 

who  has  just  retired  from  active  service  after  serving  fifty 

years,  is  the  president  of  and  the  most  active 

"  ^^F?eet  "^^  *^^  personality  in  the  Navy  League,  to  which  he 

devotes  his  virtually  unquenchable  energy. 

School  teachers  are  also  enlisted  in  the  work  of  spreading 
interest  in  the  fleet  among  the  youth.  They  lose  no  oppor- 
tunity in  their  references  to  memorable  dates  in  the  Empire's 
history  of  pointing  out  that  the  fate  and  future  prosperity  of 
Germany  are  bound  up  with  the  possession  of  a  strong 
Navy. 

All  these  factors  have  worked  together  to  bring  the  German 
Navy  to  its  present  standing.  The  Germans  now  have,  and 
can  rapidly  build  more,  splendid  ships  ;  they  possess  strongly 
fortified  naval  stations,  and  their  sailors,  although  perhaps 
lacking  in  the  experience  of  actual  battle,  are  well  drilled  and 
splendidly  disciplined,  good  seamen  and  gunners,  and  are 
besides  active  and  earnest. 

This  remarkable  creation  of  a  Navy  is  the  work  of  twenty 
years,  for  it  was  only  in  the  late  eighties  that  serious  con- 
sideration was  given   to  the  subject.      The 

"^^^V^rk^"**  first  commander-in-chief  of  the  Navy  was 
^  *  appointed   in    1889,   when  it    was    thought 

that,  with  the  increase  of  oversea  commerce  and  the 
consequent    ever-present    danger    of    conflict    of    interests 


ADMIRAL   VOX    TIRPITZ 


^  Of    THE 

UNIVERSITY 


The  Navy  67 

with  other  lands,  it  was  necessary  to  have  a  naval  force  to 
act  as  a  protection  to  the  rapidly  increasing  mercantile  marine. 
Several  vessels  of  nominal  value  were  then  in  commission 
and  very  few  additions  were  made  for  some  years.  In  1898, 
however,  a  programme  of  shipbuilding  was  drawn  up  and  a 
law  was  passed  by  the  Imperial  Parliament  providing  for  a 
fleet  consisting  of  nineteen  battleships  (inclusive  of  reserve) 
and  forty-two  cruisers,  large  and  small. 

This  was  but  a  beginning,  for  two  years  afterwards  another 
programme  became  law,  under  the  auspices  of  the  then  and 
present  Marine  Minister,  Admiral  von  Tirpitz,  which  increased 
the  strength  of  the  Navy  to  thirty-eight  battleships, 
fourteen  armoured  and  thirty-eight  protected  cruisers  and 
ninety-six  torpedo  boats  and  destroyers,  the  whole  of  which 
were  to  be  laid  down  by  1916.  Six  further  big  cruisers  were 
added  to  the  programme  in  1906. 

The  sea-carrying  trade  in  the  meantime  went  up  by  leaps 

and  bounds,  until  Germany  has  now  taken  second  place 

on   the  list    of   mercantile   marine   nations. 

Devd^pment.  ^^^  ^^'  ^^^  ^^^  ^  perfect  right  to  be,  proud 
of  this  achievement  effected  in  so  short  a 
time.  The  wonderful  development  gave  birth  to  the  idea 
that  she  could  also  become  a  first-class  fighting  power 
on  the  water,  and,  with  the  stern  determination  of  the  race, 
she  has  set  about  the  task  of  realizing  this  idea. 

In  1908  the  naval  programme  underwent  some  changes  in 
consequence  of  the  decision  to  reduce  the  effective  life  of 
battleships  from  twenty-five  to  twenty  years.  The  total  of 
vessels  provided  for  was  not  altered,  except  in  the  case  of 
torpedo  boats  and  destroyers,  whose  number  was  increased 
to  144.  A  large  flotilla  of  submarines  was  added,  and  the 
whole  programme  is  to  be  completed  by  1916-17,  whereas 
formerly  the  ships  were  only  to  be  laid  down  by  that 
year. 

The  fundamental  duties  of  the  fleet  are  set  out  in  the 
preamble  to  the  naval  law  of  1900  as  follows : 


68  Germany  of  the  Germans 

1.  Protection  and  representation  of  German  commerce  on 

all  seas. 

2.  Defence  of  the  coasts  of  the  Empire. 

3.  Development  of  means  of  defence. 

The  list  of  vessels  built  or  to  be  laid  down  is 
cX«m2.     thefoUowing: 

Home  Active  Fleet 
2  flagships. 
32  line  of  battleships. 
8  big  armoured  cruisers. 
24  protected  cruisers. 

Vessels  for  Service  Abroad 
8  big  armoured  cruisers. 
10  protected  cruisers. 

Reserve  Fleet 
4  battleships. 
4  big  armoured  cruisers. 
4  protected  cruisers. 

Flotillas  of  Small  Craft 
6  gunboats. 
10  training  ships. 

12  special  vessels,  repairing  ships,  etc. 
144  torpedo-boats  and  destroyers. 
39  coast  and  harbour  torpedo  boats. 

Of  the  four  squadrons  of  first-class  battleships  of  which  the 
Navy  is  eventually  to  be  composed,  two,  besides  two  flagships, 
form  the  active  fleet,  which  is  always  fully  manned  and  armed 
and  in  readiness  to  proceed  anywhere.  The  other  two  squad- 
rons of  eight  first-class  battleships  each  form  the  reserve  of 
the  active  fleet,  half  of  which,  according  to  the  law,  must  be 
always  fully  manned  and  ready  for  immediate  commission. 
Hitherto  this  law  has  not  been  carried  out  in  its  entirety, 
owing  to  lack  of  ships,  but  now  that  the  newer  class  of  ships 


The  Navy  69 

is  being  so  rapidly  laid  down  orders  have  been  given  to  keep 

a  reserve  fleet  of  eight  ships  permajiently  in  commission  during 

six  months  at  least  of  each  year. 

The  total  of  the  personnel  on  the  establishment  for  the  year 

1909-10  was  5,521  officers  and  51.547  men. 

_,     -,  ,         There  is  a  first  reserve,  consisting  of  men 

The  Personnel.        ,      ,  i  •     .1      -v-  r  ^^  ^/n« 

who  have  served  m  the  Navy,  of  over  60,000 

men.     A  large  number  of  these  are  engaged  in  the  mercantile 

marine,  which  employs  33,932  seamen  and  officers,  22,779 

stokers  and  engineers  and   15,142  boys  and  other  ratings, 

making  a  total  of  71,853.     Others,  to  the  number  of  some 

thousands,    work    as    artificers    in    the    shipbuilding   yards. 

Many  are  employed  in  foreign  merchant  ships.     All  these. 

as  well  as  the  fishermen  and  inhabitants  of  coast  towns  and 

the  men  employed  in  river  and  canal  traffic,  are  enrolled  for 

service  in  the  Navy  if  needed. 

The  total  number  of  artificers  employed  in  the  Imperial 
Navy  yards  is  nearly  20,000,  while  the  private  shipbuilding 
yards,  where  many  of  the  warships  are  built,  employ  no  fewer 
than  50,000. 

Some  naval  men  assert  that  the  seafaring  and  semi-seafaring 
population  is  no  longer  sufficiently  large  to  provide  all  the 
M       L    ds  ^^^  required  for  the  Navy  and  its  reserves. 

It  is  a  rather  notable  fact  that  most  of  those 
who  enter  the  Navy  as  boys  for  a  long  period  of  service,  and 
who  in  nearly  all  cases  become  petty  officers,  come  from  the 
inland  town  population.  The  fact  has  been  of  great  service 
to  the  mercantile  marine,  which  thus  has  its  sailors  trained 
for  it  by  the  Government.  The  increase  in  the  number  of 
merchant  ships  has  of  late  been  so  rapid  that  this  assistance 
is  heartily  welcomed  by  shipowners.  The  number  of  merchant 
vessels  flying  the  German  flag  on  January  1,  1909,  was 
1,922  steamers,  with  a  net  tonnage  of  2,256,783,  and  2,345 
sailing  ships,  registering  433,749  tons. 

The  system  of  recruiting  for  the  Navy  is  similar  to  that  for 
the  Army,  except  that  the  seafaring  class  is  specially  set  apart, 


70  Germany  of  the  Germans 

but  landsmen  may  enlist  voluntarily,  if  fit,  for  a  period  of  four 
years  or  more,  and  a  considerable  number  do  this.  The  usual 
term  of  service  for  ordinary  recruits  is  three  years  in  the 
active  fleet,  four  years  in  the  reserve,  five  years  in  the  first 
levy  of  the  second  reserve  and  then  till  forty  years  of  age  in 
the  second  levy.  The  petty  officers,  who  form  the  backbone 
of  the  Navy,  often  serve  for  twelve  years. 

A  considerable  number  of  boys  from  fourteen  and  a  half  to 
eighteen  years  of  age  are  also  voluntarily  enlisted,  and  these 
_    .  .  are  compelled  in  return  for  their  training  to 

complete  from  nine  to  ten  and  a  half  years' 
active  service.  They  serve  on  board  the  training  ships  for  a 
year  and  a  half,  during  which  they  make  a  long  sea  cruise 
lasting  several  months.  After  this  period  they  are,  if  fully 
developed  physicedly,  posted  to  the  warships  of  the  active 
fleet  as  ordinary  seamen.  If,  however,  not  considered  as 
having  acquired  sufficient  knowledge  of  seamanship,  they 
must  serve  another  year  on  the  training  ship.  Then  follows 
their  three  years'  active  compulsory  service,  and  they  must 
afterwards  continue  in  the  Navy  for  another  four  and  a  half 
years  as  a  return  for  the  cost  of  their  training.  Most  of  these 
boys  become  petty  officers  and  remain  in  the  service  until 
entitled  to  a  pension. 

About  700  young  men  also  enter  the  Navy  annually  as 
one-year  volunteers.  Most  of  these  are  engineers  and,  after 
the  completion  of  their  year  and  one  or  two  further  terms  of 
eight  weeks*  service  in  the  reserve,  may  be  appointed  engineer 
officers  of  the  naval  reserve. 

The  officers  of  the  Navy  are  supplied  from  the  naval  cadet 
corps,  into  which  youths  with  a  higher  school  education  enter 

N      1  Offi  between  the  ages  of  seventeen  and  nineteen. 

They  are  first  sent  to  a  naval  barracks  for  a 
month's  setting-up  drill  and  are  then  drafted  on  to  the  cadets* 
training  ships,  where  they  remain  for  twelve  months  and 
receive  a  very  severe  practical  and  theoretical  training.  An 
examination  follows,  as  the  result  of  which  they  are  either 


^^    THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


The  Navy  71 

dismissed  as  unsuitable  or  sent  to  the  Imperial  Naval  College 
at  Kiel.  The  course  in  this  college,  which  lasts  another 
year,  is  almost  purely  scientific,  and  at  its  conclusion  the 
cadet  undergoes  a  trying  examination.  If  successful  he  is 
then  sent  to  the  gunnery  and  torpedo  training  depots  for  a 
six  months'  course  of  instruction  and  afterwards  appointed 
midshipman  in  the  active  fleet,  all  the  while  receiving  only 
the  pay  of  an  able  seaman.  In  another  two  years,  having 
in  the  meantime  participated  in  various  cruises  and  fleet 
manoeuvres,  the  midshipman  is  promoted  to  sub-lieutenant 
and  launched  on  his  career. 

The  German  "  Watch  on  the  North  Sea,"  Wilhelmshafen, 
the  new  naval  station  on  the  North  Sea,  gives  remarkable 
evidence  of  the  fixed  determination  of 
the  North^Sea"  *^^  German  Empire  to  transform  itself  into 
a  naval  power.  The  town  practically  dates 
only  from  1872,  when  its  first  church  was  built.  To-day  it 
has  27,000  inhabitants,  with  fine  houses,  official  buildings, 
schools,  parks,  and,  last  but  not  least,  an  enormous  fortified 
harbour  with  three  entrances,  to  which  the  greater  portion 
of  the  fleet  is  attached,  including  all  the  Dreadnought 
class. 

The  rapid  development  in  the  number  and  dimensions  of 
the  vessels  of  the  Navy  made  it  necessary  for  the  Marine 
Ministry  to  look  outside  of  the  boundaries  of  the  Baltic  for 
another  naval  base.  Wilhelmshafen  was  the  most  suitable, 
as  it  possessed  already  ten  years  ago  an  Imperial  shipyard 
for  the  construction  of  the  largest  vessels.  The  fact,  too,  that 
the  latest  designed  war  vessels  were  too  large  to  pass  through 
the  Kiel  Canal  hastened  the  decision  to  fortify  Wilhelmshafen, 
and  it  has  now  become  almost  impregnable.  In  the  near 
vicinity  are  now,  besides  the  Imperial  yard,  three  private 
yards  able  to  build  even  the  25,000  ton  leviathan  ships  now 
under  consideration.  These  are  the  yards  of  Blohm  and 
Voss,  in  Hamburg,  the  Weser  Shipbuilding  Co.,  near  Bremen, 
and    the  Vulkan  Co.,  which    has  recently  transferred    its 


72  Germany  of  the  Germans 

principal  yard  from  Stettin  to  Hamburg,  while  another  yard 
is  being  erected  in  Briinsbiittel. 

Wilhelmshafen  has  three  enormous  dry  docks,  and  Briins- 
biittel is  to  have  one — all  capable  of  takmg  in  and  repairing 
the  biggest  ironclads. 

Kiel,  the  principal  naval  station  on  the  Baltic,  has  hitherto 

been  Germany's  most  important  naval  port.     All  the  technical 

schools  belonging  to  the  Navy   are  situated 

^Strti^ns!^  there.  It  is  defended  by  the  fortress  Fried- 
richsort,  with  several  other  smaller  fortifica- 
tions. The  naval  arsenal  employs  about  7,000  men.  It 
possesses  dry  and  floating  docks  capable  of  receiving  the 
largest  vessels  afloat. 

Heligoland  is  also  rapidly  becoming  a  powerful  naval 
station,  but  is  principally  utilised  for  the  smaller  class  of 
vessels,  such  as  torpedo-boats  and  destroyers,  of  which  a 
large  number  are  always  stationed  there. 

Cuxhaven  is  the  central  mining  station  for  the  fleet,  while 
Geestemiinde  is  also  a  minor  naval  depot. 

The  mouths  of  the  Elbe  and  the  Weser  have  been  so 
strongly  fortified  of  late  years  that  they  are  now  regarded 
as  impregnable. 

At  all  of  these  points  the  work  of  making  the  fleet  efficient 
and  perfecting  the  instruction  of  the  crews  in  the  duties  they 
must  carry  out  in  case  of  war  goes  on  incessantly  the  year 
round.  Squadron  and  fleet  manoeuvres,  torpedo  attacks, 
landing  operations  in  co-operation  with  the  army,  and  mine- 
laying  are  constantly  practised  at  different  parts  of  the 
coast-line.  No  effort  is  being  spared  by  those  in  command, 
with  the  Emperor  and  his  brother.  Prince  Henry,  at  their  head, 
to  make  the  German  fleet  as  powerful  on  the  sea  as  the  German 
Army  is  redoubtable  on  land. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE   "  AGE  OF  YOUTH  " 

"  The  nation  which  possesses  the  best  schools  must  take  the 

lead  :   if  not  to-day,  then  to-morrow."     These  words,  uttered 

many  years  ago  by  M.  Jules  Simon,  the  French 

Schools         statesman,  appear  at  the  present  day  to  be 

strikingly    true.     Germany    is    the    land    of 

schools,  and  she  is  rapidly  taking  a  leading  place  in  the  world. 

The  present  period  of  the  world's  history  might  with  reason 

be  called  the  "  Age  of  Youth."     Every  class  of  society  in 

every  land  is  now  devoting  its  most  serious  attention  to  the 

discovery  of  the  best  method  of  developing  and  educating 

the  young,  on  whom  the  future  of  every  nation  depends. 

There  exist,  even  in  Germany,  many  and  varied  ideas  as 
to  what  should  be  passed  on  to  the  young  from  the  lessons  of 
the  past,  and  how  it  should  be  taught.  The  tendency  to-day 
seems  to  be  more  and  more  in  the  direction  of  extracting  from 
the  past  all  that  can  be  utilised  for  the  practical  needs  of  the 
present  day,  and  leaving  learning  for  learning's  sake  severely 
alone. 

Germany  was  one  of  the  first  countries  to  recognise  its  duty 
towards  youth,  and,  many  years  before  other  nations  turned 
their  thoughts  in  this  direction,  compulsory 
to  Youth        ^^^^   education   was   enforced   in   town    and 
country. 
There  are  at  present  in  the  Empire  60,584  free  public 
elementary  schools  with  nearly  10,000,000  pupils,  and  614 
private    elementary   schools,    mostly    denominational,    with 
42,000  pupils,  who  pay  fees.     The  scheme  of  education  is 
similar  in  both  public  and  private  schools.     The  average 
number  in  a  class  is  fifty-eight,  but  this  falls  as  low  as  thirty- 
three  in  Liibeck  and  rises  to  eighty-five  in  Schaumburg-Lippe. 
Although  the  schools  are  free,  parents  who  can  afford  to  do 
so  are  obliged  to  pay  for  the  requisite  books  and  utensils. 

73 


74 


Germany  of  the  Germans 


The   total   cost   of  the  elementary  schools   Amounts   to 

£26,143,050  a  year,  of  which  the  various  State  governments  pay 

£7,507,700  and  the  local  school  authorities  the 

remainder.    The  average  cost  of  the  education 

is  nearly  £2  14s.  per  pupil  per  annum. 

The  variation  in  the  cost  of  elementary  school  education  in 

the  large  cities  is  set  out  clearly  in  the  following  table  : 


Cost  of 
Schools. 


No.  of  Elementary      Annual 

Cost  falling 

Scholars  per 

Outlay 

on  each 

100  i 

nhabitants    per  Scholar      Inhabitant 

i    s. 

s.    d. 

Wilmersdorf  . . 

7-3 

...51 

...       7     5 

Charlottenburg 

9 

...     5  15 

...      10     2 

Schoneberg    . . 

8-4 

...55 

...      10     6 

Frankfort-on-Main    . 

91     . 

...     4  12 

...       8    3 

Wiesbaden     . . 

7-7 

...     5  12 

...       8    8 

Erfurt 

91 

...26 

...       4     2 

Bonn     . . 

111 

...     3  11 

...       7     9 

Miinster 

11-4 

...     2  18 

...       6    8 

Dusseldorf      . . 

13-2 

...     2  17 

7     6 

Coblence 

11-7 

...     3  12 

...       8    6 

Berlin 

111      . 

...45. 

...       9     5 

Cologne 

131 

...     3     5 

...       8     1 

Aachen 

13-3 

...     2  17 

...       7     7 

Trier 

10-3 

...     3  10 

...       7     3 

Elberfeld 

14 

...     3  13     . 

...     10     2 

Rhendt 

16 

...     2  17     . 

...       9     1 

Essen 

16-5     . 

...3     4. 

...     10     7 

Duisburg 

16-7 

...     3     2 

...      10     0 

Oberhausen    . . 

17-7     . 

...     2     2 

...       7     6 

Miinchen  Gladbach  . 

15-6 

...     2  17     . 

...       9     1 

Krefeld 

13-4 

...     4     0 

...     10     7 

Iserlohn 

17-3 

...3     0 

...     10     4 

Dortmund 

16 

...     3     9 

...     11     0 

Barmen 

15-2 

,..     3  18 

...      11     9 

Gelsenkirchen 

19-4     . 

'..     3     0 

...     11     8 

Ludenscheid  . . 

18-2 

...     2  10 

...       9     2 

Bielefeld 

14-7 

...     3  10 

...     10     3 

Remscheid     . . 

17-3 

...36 

...     11     5 

Miilheim-Ruhr 

18-7 

...29 

...       9     1 

Solingen 

16-5 

...     2  18 

...       9     6 

Heme 

20-6 

...     2  13 

...     12     1 

Bochum 

17-4 

...     3     1 

...     10     6 

Hamm 

17 

...     2  15 

...       9     4 

Witten 

.     16-9 

...     3     3 

...     10     7 

ReckUnghausen 

.     17-8 

....     2  18 

....     10     5 

Hagen 

.     17-7 

....     3  12 

....     12     7 

The  "  Age  of  Youth  "  75 

In  all  the  grades  of  schools  the  first  great  principle  put  into 
practice  is  the  enforcement  of  rigid  discipline  and  the  fostering 
of  patriotism  and  loyalty  to  the  ruler. 

Rich  and  poor  alike,  with  very  few  exceptions,  begin  their 
education  in  the  free  elementary  schools,  where  the  children 
are  given  a  thorough  grounding  in  the  elements  of  education. 

The  syllabus  is  not  a  very  extensive  one,  but  is  taught  in 
such  a  manner  that  it  takes  firm  root.  Every  effort  is  made 
to  keep  the  number  of  subjects  taught  within 
%  Uabi^^  *^^  narrowest  limits,  experience  having  shown 
that  when  the  curriculum  is  spread  over  too 
wide  a  range  the  pupils  learn  very  superficially.  Arithmetic, 
reading,  writing,  modern  German  history  and  geography, 
especially  with  reference  to  the  colonies,  drawing,  natural 
history,  hygiene,  physiology,  and  religion  are  the  subjects 
on  which  most  stress  is  laid.  The  natural  history  lessons 
are  usually  conducted  in  the  open  air,  in  the  course  of  walks 
in  the  parks,  the  forests  and  the  zoological  gardens.  Children 
are  encouraged  to  write  their  impressions  of  everything  they 
have  seen  and  also  to  relate  their  experiences  aloud  before 
their  class-mates.  This  has  an  excellent  effect  on  their 
manner  of  expression,  both  written  and  spoken. 

The  mechanical  system  of  learning  from  books  by  heart, 

wfiich  until  recently  was  the  method  usually  adopted,  is  now 

abandoned  except  in  cases  where  such  learning 

Learning  by     jg  absolutely  necessary.     More  freedom  is  also 

Abandoned,  allowed  the  pupils  in  working  out  their 
answers  to  the  problems  set  them,  and  thus 
their  personal  initiative  is  encouraged. 

The  German  love  of  nature  extends  to  the  school-children, 
who  usually  on  one  afternoon  a  week  are  taken  out  into  the 
country  by  their  teachers  for  a  ramble  through  the  woods, 
where  they,  besides  enjoying  the  fresh  air,  are  taught  the 
elements  of  botany  and  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  names  of 
birds  and  animals,  etc. 

A  society  has  been  founded  for  the  promotion  of  walking 


76  Germany  of  the  Germans 

tours  among  the  children  during  the  school  holidays,  under 
the  supervision  of  the  teachers.  The  outlay  is  very  small 
and  the  children  are  encouraged  to  save  their  pence  towards 
the  cost.  Those  who  have  no  means  are  allowed  to  accompany 
the  expedition  free  of  cost.  The  children  are  housed  in  farms 
and  country  cottages  at  the  various  stopping-places  and,  as 
the  tours  usually  last  a  week  at  a  time,  the  pupils  gain  a 
considerable  knowledge  of  the  surrounding  countj-y. 

The  purely  impersonal  relation  which  formerly  existed 
between  teacher  and  pupil  has  in  this  way  undergone  consider- 
able change  of  late  years.  In  many  schools,  too,  the  system 
of  monitors  has  been  introduced  with  excellent  results  in 
teaching  the  scholars  self-government  and  responsibility. 
The  monitors  are  chosen  by  the  pupils  themselves. 

Teachers  in  Germany  have  the  right  to  punish  pupils,  but 

this  right  has  been  often  objected  to,  and  has  caused  many 

quarrels  between  teachers  and  parents.     On 

^Pun^shmenf  ^^^Y  sides  it  is  regarded  as  dangerous  to 
allow  a  teacher  to  be  at  once  complainant, 
judge  and  executioner.  It  has  been  proposed  that  a 
committee,  comprising  some  of  the  pupils'  fathers,  several 
headmasters  and  teachers,  should  be  called  together  in  every 
case  where  corporal  punishment  is  proposed  by  a  teacher, 
and  on  their  decision  the  case  should  be  decided. 

The  age  of  school  attendance  is  in  general  from  the  sixth 
to  the  fourteenth  year,  but  in  some  of  the  smaller  States  of 
the  Empire  slight  variations  are  made.  Even  when  a  child  has 
reached  the  minimum  age  limit  for  leaving,  he  or  she  has  to 
secure  by  examination  a  certificate  of  efficiency.  In  many 
districts  children  are  not  permitted  to  leave  school  until  after 
their  confirmation,  which  is  made  a  condition  of  release. 

It  is  the  custom  in  Germany  to  start  school  in  summer  at 
seven  o'clock  and  in  winter  at  eight,  but  it 

Attendance  *^  proposed  in  future  to  make  the  time  an 
hour  later. 

The  younger  children  are  given  instruction  only  in  the 


A   FUTURE    KAISER 


f^     OF   TH£ 


The  *'  Age  of  Youth  ''  77 

forenoon.  Those  of  the  higher  classes,  however,  have  to 
attend  a  minimum  of  thirty-two  hours'  study  during  the  week. 
Of  these  four  are  devoted  to  scriptural  instruction,  increasing 
to  six  when  the  child  is  preparing  for  confirmation. 

Many  complaints  have  been  made  that  the  education  given 
in  the  elementary  schools  is  precisely  similar  in  town  and 
country,  in  spite  of  the  diversity  of  conditions  and  require- 
ments. It  is  recognised  that  the  city  children  are  well  looked 
after  in  this  respect,  but  the  country  children  spend  much  of 
their  time  in  acquiring  knowledge  which  is  of  little  or  no  use 
to  them  if  they  are  destined  to  remain  on  the  land.  Farmers 
and  landowners  throw  the  blame  for  the  desertion  of  the 
country  by  the  growing  generation  of  men  and  women  on  to 
this  mistaken  education.  The  various  Ministers  of  Education 
have  lent  a  willing  ear  to  the  complaints  and  have  decided 
that  in  future  the  curriculum  of  the  country  schools,  although 
retaining  the  groundwork  of  general  education,  shall  provide 
for  the  gaining  by  the  pupils  of  at  least  a  theoretical  knowledge 
of  agriculture  and  other  country  work. 

Similar  murmurs  against  the  clerkly  nature  of  the  instruction 

given  in  the  elementary  schools  were  at  one  time  very  frequent 

in  the  cities,  where  it  was  found  that  large 

InfteuSion  numbers  of  the  boys  from  the  elementary 
schools  on  leaving  declined  to  become  appren- 
ticed as  artisans.  They  preferred  to  start  life  as  shop-boys 
and  junior  clerks,  earning  at  the  beginning  a  little  more  money 
and  wearing  better  clothes  than  artisans'  apprentices.  A  few 
years  later,  however,  when  it  was  almost  too  late,  they  found 
the  road  to  advancement  to  the  higher  clerical  and  managerial 
positions  closed  to  them  by  the  entry  into  the  business  of 
technically  educated  higher  school  pupils,  who  commenced  at 
a  later  age  with  better  equipment. 

The  lack  of  trained  artisans  meanwhile  made  itself  felt, 
and  in  many  cities,  of  which  Munich  and  Charlottenburg  were 
the  pioneers,  an  entire  change  has  been  made  in  the  elementary 
school  instruction.     In  the  latter  years  of  the  schoolboy's 


78  Germany  of  the  Germans 

life  he  is  given  thorough  instruction  in  drawing  and  provided 
with  opportunities  to  acquire  the  elements  of  various  handi- 
crafts, while  the  girls  are  taught  practical  household  economy, 
cooking,  dressmaking  and  laundry  work.  The  result  is  that 
the  interest  of  the  children  is  aroused  at  the  age  when  they  are 
most  receptive,  and  in  Munich  at  the  present  moment  nearly 
98  per  cent,  of  the  boys  on  leaving  school  become  apprenticed, 
while  the  great  majority  of  the  girls  enter  domestic  service 
instead  of  going  into  factories. 

In  the  city  of  Halle  parents  of  elementary  school  children 

are  asked  during  the  last  year  of  the  child's  school  attendance 

to  visit  the  headmaster  and  discuss  with  him 

Co^^e^ation  *^^  question  of  the  child's  future.  At  this 
meeting  the  question  is  generally  decided  as 
to  what  calling  the  boy  or  girl  shaU  adopt — health,  inclination 
and  adaptabiHty  aU  being  taken  into  consideration.  The 
school  or  town  doctor's  certificate  of  the  child's  state  of  health 
is  always  sought  before  a  decision  is  reached. 

In  every  school  district  provision  is  made  for  classes  for 
the  deaf  and  dumb,  the  blind  and  the  mentally  feeble.  Poor 
children  are  given  food,  mostly  by  private  societies,  which  are 
subsidised  by  the  municipahties.  Cripples,  of  whom  there 
are  over  80,000  of  school  age  in  the  Empire,  are  also  cared 
for  by  private  societies,  which  have  erected  sixty-three 
cripples'  homes. 

Dentists  have  been  appointed  in  several  cities  by  the  school 

authorities  to  inspect  the  teeth  of  elementary  school  children, 

who  lose  much  of  their  school  time  owing  to 

^^^^    .     toothache.     The  time  occupied  by  a  regular 

Doctors.        inspection     of     teeth    during    school    hours 

has  proved  to  be  much  less  than  that  lost 

by    the     children    remaining    absent    in     consequence     of 

toothache. 

Doctors  engaged  by  the  school  authorities  examine  every 
scholar  before  he  is  entered  on  the  registers,  and  if  the  can- 
didate is  found  to  be  physically  or  mentally  weak  he  is  put 


The  ''  Age  of  Youth  "  79 

back  for  a  year  or  even  more,  and  then,  throughout  his  school 
attendance,  he  is  examined  from  time  to  time,  and  advice  is 
given  to  the  parents  as  to  how  he  should  be  cared  for.  In 
Charlottenburg  a  trained  nurse  is  in  constant  attendance  in 
the  elementary  schools. 

The  forest  schools  for  anaemic  and  consumptive  children 

have  met  with  great  success.     The  pupils  attend  them  from 

the  age  of  nine  to  thirteen.     All  the  classes 

^hoolL        ^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^  open  air  in  the  centre  of  the 

forest    during    the    summer    months.     The 

pupils,  when  it  rains,  sit  under  a  shelter,  but  still  in  the  open 

air.     In  the  Charlottenburg  forest  school  196  per  cent,  of 

the  pupils  are  reported  as  cured  of  their  maladies,  while  in 

Miinchen-Gladbach  no  fewer  than  73' 5  per  cent.,   and  in 

Dortmund  53'3  per  cent,  have  been  restored  to  health  and 

strength  in  these  schools. 

In  the  cities  and  surrounding  districts  the  school  buildings 
and  accommodation  are  excellent,  but  in  the  country  in  many 
instances  they  are  very  primitive.  Mecklenburg  is  very 
backward  in  this  respect,  as  weU  as  in  its  scale  of  instruction, 
the  ruling  class,  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  the  feudal 
nobility,  regarding  schools  for  the  working  class  as  almost 
superfluous. 

In  Bavaria,  Protestants  and  Catholics  usually  attend 
different  schools,  but  in  some  of  the  larger  towns  mixed 
schools  have  been  organised  despite  the  decided  opposition 
of  the  more  conservative  Catholics. 

The  teachers  of  the  elementary  schools  (of  whom  there  are 

166,597,  including  29,384  women),  to  whom  Germany  owes  so 

much  for  their  faithful  and  trying  services  in 

Teacher  bringing  the  Empire  to  its  present  position  as 

one  of  the  best-educated  nations,  work  for  a 

very  modest  remuneration,  which,  however,  is  to  be  increased 

shortly.    In  Prussia  they  begin  their  career  after  a  three  years' 

course  in  training  colleges  as  probationers,  with  a  salary  of 

;£50,  which  is  raised  to  £60  as  soon  as  they  are  appointed  to  a 


80  Germany  of  the  Germans 

definite  post.  Usually  when  the  teacher  has  attained  twenty - 
five  years  the  salary  is  raised  to  £67  10s.,  which  is  increased 
every  three  years  by  £]  10s.,  until  at  forty  years  of  age  it  totals 
;f  105  yearly  ;  then  it  rises  again  by  £10  every  two  years,  until 
at  forty-eight  years  of  age  the  highest  total  permitted,  £145, 
is  reached,  when  the  teacher  may  retire.  Besides  the  salary, 
however,  there  is  an  additional  sum  given  in  place  of  house- 
room,  varying  from  £5  to  £45,  according  to  the  situation  of  the 
school  in  the  city  or  the  country  and  the  age  of  the  recipient. 
With  this  addition,  the  highest  income  of  an  elementary 
school  teacher  under  the  best  circumstances,  after  twenty- 
eight  years'  service,  could  attain  £190.  A  woman  teacher's 
salary  would,  under  the  same  conditions,  vary  from  £60  to 
£123  10s.,  according  to  age  and  situation.  There  are  various 
grants  which  may  be  added  for  different  objects.  In  other 
States  of  the  Empire  the  salaries  are,  as  a  rule,  rather 
lower. 

The  idea  seems  to  have  taken  firm  hold  of  some  educational 
authorities  that  greater  frankness  is  desirable  in  informing 
children  about  their  physical  selves.  Although 
^h^^^hf^       Germany  is,  comparatively  speaking,  a  moral 
Necessary.       nation,  yet  it  is  a  recognised  fact  that  im- 
morality among  children  and  persons  of  very 
youthful  age  has  spread  and  is  spreading  at  a  terrific  pace. 
Many  instances,  here  as  in  other  lands,  come  to  light  of  both 
boys  and  girls  going  astray  from  the  paths  of  virtue  merely 
through  ignorance  of  the  effects  of  their  thoughtless  acts. 
The  time,  it  is  thought,  has  arrived  when  children  should  be 
enlightened  by  their  mentors,  and  not  allowed  to  learn  in  a 
slipshod  and  dangerous  way  the  mystery  of  life.     In  some  of 
the  schools  evening  classes  for  boys  and  girls  separately  are 
formed,  to  which  the  respective  male  and  female  parents  or 
guardians  are  invited,  and  in  a  perfectly  modest  and  refined 
way  the  children's  minds  are  opened  up.     They  are  thus 
prepared  for  the  perils  and  pitfalls  that  beset  them  in  after 
Ufa,  and  are  taught  the  principles  of  right  living. 


The  "  Age  of  Youth  '*  81 

Compulsory  attendance  at  evening  continuation  classes  is 

imposed  on  all  boys  after  they  have  left  the  elementary  schools 

at  the  age  of  fourteen,  and  in  Wiirttemberg 

C°J^P^!^°^y  and  Baden  on  both  sexes.  Until  they  have 
Schools.  completed  their  seventeenth  year,  they  must 
go  two  or  three  evenings  weekly  to  receive 
theoretical  and  practical  instruction  in  the  trade  or  calling 
which  they  have  taken  up,  and  at  the  same  time  keep  in  touch 
with  the  subjects  they  have  been  taught  in  the  elementary 
schools.  Employers  are  obliged  by  law  to  arrange  their 
working  hours  so  as  to  permit  of  the  boys'  attendance  at  these 
classes,  which  are  really  excellent.  Usually  in  the  big  cities 
centres  are  formed  to  which  all  pupils  following  one  particulaj: 
trade  are  sent. 

Continuation  schools  were  first  officially  recognised  in  1874, 
since  which  time  the  State  Governments  have  voted  money 
for  their  support ;  but  where  possible  the  local  authorities 
provide  the  funds.  The  average  annual  cost  is  £1,250,000. 
In  Prussia  alone  there  are  over  1,600  continuation  school 
centres,  with  an  average  attendance  of  over  300,000  pupils. 
The  yearly  course  of  study  lasts  forty  weeks  and  each  week 
from  four  to  six  hours'  instruction  is  given. 

In  the  country  continuation  classes  practical  carpentry, 
gardening,  seed  ^  and  tree-planting  and  grafting,  and  the 
care  of  animals  are  taught  to  the  boys,  while  the  girls 
learn  cookery,  domestic  and  farm  work,  and  the  care  of 
children. 

A  Bill  has  recently  been  approved  in  principle  by  the 
Prussian  Parliament  to  extend  the  age  of  compulsory  attend- 
ance at  these  classes  to  eighteen,  and  there  is  every  probability 
that  it  will  shortly  become  law. 

In  some  States  of  the  Empire  special  commercial  schools 
have  been  founded,  which  train  their  pupils  for  a  commercial 
career.  Bavaria  possesses  no  fewer  than  thirty-two  of  these 
institutions,  while  Prussia,  which  adopted  the  scheme  many 
years  later,  has  only  two,  at  Cologne  and  Frankfort-on-Main. 

6— {2391) 


82  Germany  of  the  Germans 

Running  concurrently  with  the  elementary  schools  are  the 

middle  schools,  which,  however,  are  but  a  slight  advance  on 

the  way  to  higher  education.     Their  main 

Schods         object   is  to   permit   parents  to  send  their 

children  to  a  "  pay  "  school.     Pupils  remain 

in    attendance   until  the  age  of  fifteen  or  sixteen,  paying 

moderate  fees.    They  have  the  opportunity  of  studying  Latin 

and  EngHsh  as  extra  subjects  if  they  wish,  while  French  is 

obligatory  after  the  fourth  year's  attendance. 

A  brilliant  pupil  of  the  elementary  school  has  the  chance 
of  being  sent  to  a  superior  school  without  paying  fees.  About 
5  per  cent,  attain  this  advantage,  and  may  thus  in  the  end 
reach  the  university. 

Children  who  are  destined  for  the  superior  education 
necessary  for  a  professional  or  higher  technical  career  usually 
leave  the  elementary  school  at  nine  years  of  age.  They  may 
then  enter  a  classical,  semi-classical,  or  modern  school, 
according  to  their  bent. 

At  the  gymnasium,  or  higher  classical  school,  Greek,  Latin, 

Enghsh  and  French,  Hterature,  history  and  mathematics  form 

the  groundwork  of  the  tuition,  and  the  course 

EcSca^fon.  °^  ^^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^^^  ^^^  pro-gymna- 
sium  has  practically  the  same  studies,  except 
that  the  course  does  not  proceed  so  far  and  lasts  only  seven 
years. 

In  the  real-gymnasium,  or  semi-classical  school,  more 
attention  is  paid  to  modem  subjects  and  science,  and  Greek 
is  not  compulsory.  Pupils,  however,  continue  for  nine  years 
to  matriculation.  In  the  real-pro-gymnasium  the  studies  are 
the  same  without  the  higher  classes. 

In  the  superior  and  ordinary  upper  modem  schools  the 
classics  are  entirely  suppressed,  and  the  tuition  of  ancient 
history  and  literature  is  conducted  by  means  of  modem 
languages,  while  great  attention  is  paid  to  scientific 
subjects.  '  -iv;).. 


The  "  Age  of  Youth  ''  83 

The  fees  demanded  for  higher  education  are  extremely 

moderate,  averaging  £J  10s.  a  year  in  the  classical  schools, 

£6   10s.   in    the    semi-classical   schools,   and 

^Fees^^^       £5  lOs.  in  the  modem  schools,  besides  books 

and  utensils.     In  Southern  Germany  the  fees 

are  somewhat  lower. 

The  Germans  have  entirely  abandoned  the  old  idea  that 
the  more  useless  the  study  the  more  honourable  it  is,  and 
have  decided  that  the  certificates  gained  at  the  classical, 
semi-classical  and  modem  schools  are  to  be  reckoned  as 
absolutely  equal  from  the  point  of  view  of  standing.  Pupils 
passing  through  any  of  these  schools  are  now  entitled  to 
proceed  directly  to  the  universities. 

The  pupils  of  all  the  high  schools  must  exercise  immense 

application  in  their  studies.     It  is  very  rare  for  them  to  board 

in  the  school.     The  regular  course  of  instruc- 

A  ^"^ti  ^^°^  necessitates  six  hours'  class  work  every 

day,  with  an  additional  two  hours  for  special 
subjects  and  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  hours'  home  work. 
The  result  of  this  strenuous  application  is  that  the  Army 
recruiting  offices  report  45  per  cent,  of  the  lads  unfit  for  the 
year's  military  training  to  which  they  are  liable,  while  over 
70  per  cent,  become  short-sighted. 

Until  recently  physical  exercises  among  higher  school 
pupils  were  almost  totally  neglected,  only  two  hours  a  week 
being  set  apart  for  recreation  in  Prussia,  and  in  Bavaria  only 
one.  Lately,  however,  efforts  are  being  made  to  introduce 
athletic  sports  and  outdoor  games. 

The  passing  of  the  final  examination,  which  is  equivalent 
to  matriculation,  entitles  the  pupils  of  the  upper  classical, 
semi-classical  and  modern  schools  to  go  to  the  university 
and  enter  either  the  law  or  philosophical  sections.  They  may, 
however,  choose  to  enter  the  special  technical  schools,  such 
as  the  mining  and  forestry  academies  or  the  veterinary  col- 
leges. Entry  into  the  first  division  of  the  post  and  telegraph 
service  and  into  the  Army  as  officer  is  also  open  to  them. 


^  Germany  of  the  Germans 

For  the  study  of  medicine  the  pupil  must  pass  the  classical 
or  semi-classical  school.  Theological  candidates  are  confined 
to  pupils  from  the  pure  classical  schools. 

The  approach  of  the  final  examination  is  looked  forward  to 

by  all  the  pupils  with  mixed  fear  and  hope,  for  success  means 

release    from   nine    years'    hard   study   and 

Matriculation  discipline  into  the  absolute  freedom  of  the 
university.  Almost  without  exception  the 
candidates  pass,  for  the  system  of  education  is  so  thorough 
that  the  chances  of  failure  are  virtually  eliminated.  Then 
follows  a  series  of  festivities  for  the  successful  scholar  before 
he  leaves  for  three  or  four  years'  untrammelled  liberty 
uncontrolled  by  masters  or  parents. 


CHAPTER  X 

INTELLECTUAL  HOTHOUSES 

German  universities  may  be  likened  to  intellectual  hothouses, 
where  the  system  of  teaching  forces  the  student  to  rapid 

growth  in  the  direction  that  has  been  chosen 
l^Feat^e^      for  his  learning  to  take.     The  training  to-day 

is  almost  exclusively  scientific  and  highly 
specialised. 

The  great  strides  made  by  the  nation  in  the  development 
of  existing  industries  and  the  opening  up  of  new  ones  during 
the  past  thirty  years  have  created  a  demand  for  men  possessed 
of  a  highly  technical  training.  The  universities,  urged  on 
by  the  Ministers  of  Education  in  the  various  States  of  the 
Empire,  have  turned  a  favourable  ear  to  this  call,  and  are 
furnishing  men  thoroughly  equipped  to  take  the  leading 
places  in  the  commercial  and  industrial  world. 

It  has  even  been  a  matter  of  complaint  that  those  studies, 
which  at  one  time  were  considered  indispensable  to  a  properly 

educated  man,  are  now  somewhat  neglected 
^*^^^\P^^^^^  both  by  the  educational  authorities  and  by 

students.  It  is  pointed  out  that  the  State 
can  usually  find  an  excuse  for  not  filling  a  classical  chair  at 
a  university,  but  whenever  a  demand  is  made  for  finances 
to  support  a  new  technical  professorship  the  money  is  forth- 
coming. It  is  also  a  fact  that  students  nowadays  show  more 
regard  to  the  practical  than  to  the  classical  side  of  the  univer- 
sity. Only  a  little  over  a  third  of  the  undergraduates  now 
pursue  the  contemplative  studies — philosophy,  philology, 
theology  and  history.  The  remaining  two-thirds  are  attached 
to  technical  faculties. 

The  most  prominent  men  in  every  branch  of  learning  are 
secured  by  the  State  to  fiU  the  professorial  chairs,  and  they 
impart  their  knowledge  to  the  students  in  a  very  systematic 
manner,  so  that  a  graduate  finds  himself  at  the  conclusion  of 

85 


86  Germany  of  the  Germans 

his  university  career  fully  equipped  for  his  chosen  profession, 
and  replete  with  specialised  knowledge. 

The  students  belong,  as  a  general  rule,  to  the  comparatively 

well-to-do  classes.     All  must  have  passed  three  years  in  an 

elementary  school,  and  then  from  the  age  of 

StiSents         ^^^^  *^  eighteen  have  undergone  the  training 

of  a  classical,  semi-classical  or  purely  modern 

upper  school,  the  passage  of  the  final  examination  of  either 

of  which  permits  matriculation. 

Thence  the  student  proceeds  to  one  of  the  twenty-one 
universities  spread  about  the  Empire,  many  of  which  have 
gained  world-wide  renown  as  seats  of  learning.  At  the  present 
moment  there  are  51,700  undergraduates  entered  on  the 
university  books,  of  whom  1,432  are  women.  Berlin  takes 
first  place  in  numerical  importance  with  a  total  of  7,194. 
Then  foUow  Munich  with  6,547,  Leipzig  4,581,  Bonn  3,801, 
Freiburg  2,760,  Breslau  2,347,  HaUe  2,310,  Gottingen  2,239, 
Heidelberg  2,171,  Marburg  2,134,  Strassburg  1,935,  Tiibingen 
1,921,  Miinster  1,760,  Jena  1,606,  Kiel  1,593,  Wiirzburg  1,369, 
Konigsberg  1,293,  Giessen  1,271,  Erlangen  1,158,  Greifswald 
967,  and  Rostock  743. 

Heidelberg  is,  besides  being  the  oldest,  one  of  the  most 
popular  of  the  universities.  It  was  founded  in  1386,  and  was 
followed  in  1409  by  Leipzig,  in  1419  by  Rostock,  in  1456  by 
Greifswald,  and  in  1457  by  Freiburg.  Berlin,  Munich  and 
Bonn,  three  of  the  most  frequented  universities,  are  quite 
recent  foundations,  having  been  founded  respectively  in  1810, 
1818  and  1826. 

All  have  the  four  principal  faculties :    theology,  law, 

medicine  and  philosophy.     Bonn,  Breslau  and  Tubingen  have 

separate  Cathohc  and  Protestant  theological 

F    uit*  faculties ;    Munich,  Tiibingen  and  Wiirzburg 

possess  besides  a  faculty  of  political  science, 

while  Strassburg  and  Tiibingen  have  also  a  faculty  of  natural 

sciences.     Berhn  is  endowed  with  an  agiicultural  high  school 

as  part  of  the  university. 


Intellectual  Hothouses  87 

In  most  of  the  Federal  States  exist  purely  technical  high 
schools,  which  have  recently  been  radsed  to  the  rank  of 
universities,  with  the  power  of  granting  degrees.  Before 
entering  these  high  schools,  a  student  must  pass  the  usual 
terms  in  an  upper  classical  or  modem  school  and  obtain  the 
final  certificate. 

The  branches  of  study  pursued  by  the  students  at  the 
universities  and  technical  high  schools  are  as  follows  :  13,911 
(including  699  women),  philosophy,  philology  and  history ; 
11,657  (23  women),  the  science  of  law;  9,462  (371  women), 
medicine ;  7,385  (245  women),  mathematics  and  natural 
sciences ;  2,398  (4  women),  Protestant  theology ;  1,766, 
Catholic  theology;  2,198  (42  women),  fiscal  science  and 
agriculture  ;  1,454  (4  women),  pharmacy  ;  1,238  (44  women), 
dentistry  ;    124,  forestry  ;    and  107  veterinary  medicine. 

AU  the  universities  in  Germany  except  Strassburg  and 

Rostock  are  now  open  to  women  students,  but  in  most  cases 

the  permission  has  only  recently  been  granted. 

StidTnS         Until  the  winter  of  1908  only  Jena,  Leipzig, 

Heidelberg,   Freiburg,   Wiirzburg,   Tubingen, 

Munich  and  Erlangen  received  women  students,  and  the  total 

attending  the  lectures  numbered  under  400.     As  soon  as  the 

doors  of  the  other  universities  were  opened  to  women,  the 

number  increased  to  nearly  1,500.     Besides  the  recognised 

women  students,  a  large  number  of  women  are  permitted  to 

attend  lectures  as  unattached  auditors,  all  the  universities 

without  exception  admitting  them  as  such. 

At  the  university  the  student  finds  an  entirely  different 
life  awaiting  him  from  that  which  he  has  been  accustomed  to. 
He  is  now  thrown  absolutely  on  his  own 
L'f  *  resources  away  from  home  and  school  control. 
There  is  no  coUege  system  and  he  is  com- 
pelled to  seek  for  social  intercourse  among  complete  strangers. 

On  going  up  to  the  university  ofiices  at  the  beginning  of 
term  to  enter  his  name  for  the  courses  of  lectures  he  intends 
to  follow,  the  freshman  finds  groups  of  members  of  the  various 


88  Germany  of  the  Germans 

duelling  corps  and  guilds  promenading,  with  their  multi- 
coloured caps  and  sashes,  in  the  vicinity  in  order  to  attract 
new-comers  to  their  ranks.  In  many  cases  the  freshman's 
father  or  some  relative  has  been  a  member  of  one  of  these 
corps  and  the  young  fellow  feels  traditionally  bound  to  follow 
the  example. 

Nowadays,  however,  the  large  majority  of  students  do  not 

join  the  corps,  the  alleged  object  of  which  is  to  develop 

chivalry  and  courage,  but  which  as  a  general 

Duelling        ^^  ^^-^y  encourage  their  members  to  drink 

and  instil  into  them  supersensitive   feelings 

in  regard  to  personal  honour,  which  must  be  defended  with 

weapons  when  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  hurt. 

The  becapped  student,  so  often  caricatured  with  his 
gashed  face  and  bloated  body,  must  not  be  accepted  as  the 
representative  of  the  average  German  undergraduate.  He 
exists  certainly  and  often  stays  for  years  at  the  university 
devoting  his  time  to  hard  drinking  and  useless  fencing. 
Very  often  the  gashes  on  his  face  and  head  are  the  sole  signs 
that  he  has  been  to  a  university. 

The  really  representative  German  student  is  found  outside 
the  ranks  of  these  antiquated  brutalising  guilds,  living  quietly 
and  modestly  in  a  boarding-house  or  furnished  room,  and 
applying  himself  with  earnest  purpose  to  the  acquisition  of 
book  knowledge  which  he  hopes  will  be  useful  to  him  in  his 
future  career.  Usually  the  student  must  exist  on  a  very 
slender  allowance  from  home.  Sometimes  he  depends  on  the 
income  from  a  private  or  Government  scholarship  which  he 
has  gained  at  the  expense  of  terribly  hard  study  at  school, 
and  often  he  ekes  this  out  by  giving  private  lessons. 

As  to  the  course  of  study,  an  almost  appalling  seriousness 

and  technicality  pervades  it,  which  is  not  relieved  by  any 

kind  of  social  intercourse  or  sport.     Even  the 

^  Study  °^       language  used  by  the  professors  and  students 

is  a  thing  apart  from  that  of  the  ordinary 

person,  to  whom  it  is  almost  incomprehensible. 


Intellectual  Hothouses  89 

There  is  no  attempt  made  to  carry  out  any  scheme  of 
general  culture.  The  point  of  view  taken  is  that,  if  a  man 
desires  to  devote  himself  to  a  certain  branch  of  knowledge,  he 
must  renounce  his  interest  in  those  events  of  everyday  life 
which  are  not  directly  connected  with  or  do  not  lead  towards 
the  goal  which  he  is  attempting  to  reach.  Everything  else 
must  give  way  to  the  object  he  has  in  view. 

If  the  student  does  build  up  his  character  he  does  so  despite 

the  system.     Happily  the  education  he  has  acquired  at  the 

secondary  schools  is  of  a  more  general  nature, 

^*Build[nff*^^  otherwise  the  graduate  of  a  German  univer- 
sity would  be  a  being  even  more  widely 
separated  than  he  is  from  the  rest  of  the  nation. 

Germans  who  have  studied  at  a  university  are  in  far  too 
many  instances  inclined  to  despise  those  who  have  not,  what- 
ever the  natural  gifts  and  intelligence  of  the  non-imiversity 
man  may  be,  and  however  much  real  practical  knowledge  he 
may  have  acquired. 

The  whole  tendency  seems  to  be  to  form  a  class  spirit,  but 
even  among  the  students  themselves  there  is  very  little 
community  of  interest.  A  student  of  one 
branch  of  science  will  take  no  interest  what- 
ever in  the  studies  of  a  comrade  who  has  selected  another 
course.  Very  few  of  the  students  know  their  class  comrades, 
and  still  fewer  are  personally  acquainted  with  their 
professors. 

Discipline  is  rather  lax  during  the  lectures,  the  professors 
being  often  interrupted  by  the  entry  of  late  comers. 

Students  are,  however,  not  entirely  released  from  control 
except  as  far  as  their  moral  welfare  is  concerned.  They 
are  subject  to  certain  restrictions  in  regard  to  politics,  the 
State  contending  that,  as  a  considerable  amount  of  public 
money  is  spent  on  the  universities,  the  students  who  reap 
the  benefit  of  the  outlay  are  under  its  guardianship.  They 
are,  therefore,  forbidden  to  participate  in  political  meetings, 
as  it  is  considered  that,  owing  to  their  unripe  age,  they 


90  Germany  of  the  Germans 

are  likely  to  be  led  away  by  the  arguments  of  the  orators 
and  to  form  erroneous  opinions  on  questions  of  public 
interest. 

The  quality  of  the  instruction  is  without  exception  good, 
but  owing  to  the  stress  laid  upon  memorising,  it  tends  to 
develop  that  pedantry  and  dogmatism  which 
^"^GcIJ>d^°"  ^^^  ^^^^  notable  traits  of  the  German  univer- 
sity man,  who  will  not  listen  to  the  opinion 
of  anyone  who  is  not  a  college  man  and  has  not  made  an 
academic  study  of  the  subject.  The  professors  appear  to 
encourage  this  arrogant  spirit,  for  they  themselves  seem  to 
imagine  that  their  teachings  comprise  the  whole  sum  of  what 
can  be  known  on  their  speciality,  and  that  when  the  students 
have  memorised  their  teachings  they  have  reached  the 
culminating  point  of  wisdom. 

One  great  advantage  German  students  possess  is  that  the 
most  prominent  active  scientists  in  every  branch  of  knowledge 
are  appointed  professors  at  the  universities.  In  this  way  the 
very  latest  achievements  and  discoveries  are  explained  to  the 
students  at  first  hand  by  the  inventor  or  discoverer  himself. 
Professors,  too,  are  exchanged  between  the  various  univer- 
sities, so  that  the  whole  nation  benefits  by  their  teachings, 
and  the  knowledge  imparted  to  students  is  uniform.  The 
superintendence  exercised  over  the  universities  by  the  State 
ensures  a  steady  constancy  in  the  educational  system  and 
keeps  the  professorial  body  braced  up  to  its  work,  although 
the  objection  is  raised  that  it  tends  to  bring  about  a  certain 
mechanical  course  of  teaching.  Private  tutors  exist,  but 
not  to  such  an  extent  as  in  other  countries,  as  cramming  for 
examinations  is  scarcely  known. 

The  arrangement  of  the  courses  of  lectures  is  such 
that  students  are  compelled  to  specialise,  and  even  to 
specialise  on  a  branch  of  a  science.  The  professorships 
are  so  numerous  and  the  lectures  so  multiplied  that  a  clash 
would  come  if  a  student  attempted  to  arrange  a  general 
course. 


Intellectual  Hothouses  91 

The  length  of  the  undergraduate's  stay  at  the  university 

depends  principally  on  the  profession  he  has  chosen.     Law 

students  usually  stay  up  for  three  and  a  half 

^ s^t^dT"  °^  years,  Catholic  theological  students  the  same 
period,  Protestant  theological  students  four 
years,  mathematicians  and  natural  scientists,  philologists 
and  historians  and  medical  students  five  years.  A  new  term 
begins  every  half-year  and  the  university  year  is  divided  into 
winter  and  summer  semesters. 

The  Catholic  students  incline  more  to  classical  education 
than  the  Protestants,  who  devote  their  energies  to  technical 
training.  Statistics  from  the  Rhine  district,  where  the 
population  is  70  per  cent.  Catholic,  show  that  only  40  per  cent, 
of  the  technical  students  are  Catholic,  while  in  Posen,  where 
the  proportion  of  Catholics  is  the  same,  only  15  per  cent,  of 
students  of  that  sect  attend  technical  lectures.  In  Bavaria, 
also,  similar  facts  are  recorded. 

The  teaching  at  the  universities  is  the  subject  of  considerable 
murmuring  from  those  who  would  prefer  to  see  more  indi- 
viduahty  among  educated  men.  It  is  argued 
^a^*!!  ^  *^^*  ^^^  university  in  Germany  is  a  mere 
workshop  for  turning  out  special  parts,  each 
batch  of  which  consists  of  units  of  a  likeness  to  each  other 
which  is  excellent  when  applied  to  parts  of  a  machine,  but 
becomes  monotonous  when  the  system  affects  human  beings. 
This  uniformity,  however  much  it  may  be  deplored  by  ideal- 
ists, seems  to  be  called  for  at  the  present  day,  which  demands 
technical  accuracy  and  the  suppression  of  individuality,  so 
that  the  whole  organisation  shall  progress  with  mechanical 
smoothness.  Parents  and  teachers  no  longer  ask  themselves, 
"  How  shall  we  bring  out  the  best  in  our  sons  or  our  pupils  ?  " 
but  too  often,  without  consulting  the  youth's  desires,  "  How 
can  we  best  make  our  sons  or  our  pupils  useful  to  themselves 
and  to  us  ?  " 

Happily  this  is  not  always  the  case.  The  student  sometimes 
strikes  out  for  himself  and  asserts  his  individuality,  with  the 


92  Germany  of  the  Germans 

result  that  there  is  an  extraordinary  number  of  men  in  Germany 
who  have  carried  their  studies  so  far  as  to  obtain  the  title  of  doc- 
tor of  law,  of  music,  of  philology,  of  philosophy. 
Doctors  °^  theology,  of  mechanics,  of  sciences,  or  of 
some  other  of  the  many  branches  of  knowledge. 
The  title  is  to-day  extremely  difficult  of  attainment  at  most 
of  the  universities,  and  it  always  involves  the  accomplishment 
of  original  work.  The  candidate  for  the  title  must  necessarily 
be  a  graduate  of  a  university.  He  must  send  in  an  application 
to  the  professor  of  the  branch  of  study  in  which  he  desires  to 
undergo  an  examination.  The  professor  usually  selects  a 
number  of  themes  on  which  no  original  work  exists.  The 
candidate  chooses  one  and  writes  a  long  essay,  which  he  sends 
in  for  examination.  Then  he  must  undergo  the  trying  ordeal 
of  an  oral  examination  by  three  professors  on  the  subject 
selected  and  on  the  result  of  this  depends  the  granting  of  the 
doctor's  hood. 

The  Germans,  usually  so  thorough,  have  not  yet  become 
convinced  of  the  benefit  to  be  derived  by  the  nation  and  the 
world  through  the  provision  of  opportunities  for  all  classes 
to  attain  the  highest  education.  The  shutting  out  of  the 
overwhelming  millions  of  the  working  classes  from  this  advan- 
tage undoubtedly  means  the  loss  of  much  brilliant  intelligence 
and  intellectual  vigour,  which  must  exist  among  the  working 
classes  in  equal  proportion  to  the  other  less  numerous  but 
more  fortunate  classes  to  whom  higher  education  is  now 
confined. 

Although  the  working  class  and  many  of  the  middle  class 

are  thus  virtually  cut  off  from  the  enjoyment  of  university 

education,   yet  at  some  of  the  universities 

Working  Class   evening  extension  lectures   are   provided  at 

Excluded.       very  moderate  fees  and  have  proved  extremely 

successful.     The  University  of  Leipzig  took 

the  lead  in  this  movement  some  ten  years  ago  and  the  results 

have  exceeded  all  expectations.     In  the  winter  of  1908-09 

eighteen  courses  on  varied  subjects   were  arranged  in  the 


Intellectual  Hothouses  93 

university  buildings  under  the  guidance  of  the  professors  of 
the  faculty  at  fees  ranging  from  Is.  to  3s.  No  fewer  than 
6,989  persons,  men  and  women,  attended  regularly,  most  of 
them  belonging  to  the  middle  classes,  but  also  including  227 
artisans  and  147  working  women. 

Taken  altogether,  despite  their  traditions,  the  German 
universities  do  not  impress  as  being  the  centres  of  national 
refinement  and  culture.  This  is  brought  about,  not  because 
the  refinement  and  culture  are  absent,  but  because  the  life 
of  the  university  does  not  tend  to  cultivate  these  qualities. 
The  personal  touch  does  not  exist  between  professor  and 
student,  nor  even  among  the  students  themselves,  except  in 
connection  with  the  duelling  corps,  whose  influence  is  in 
many  quarters  regarded  as  exactly  the  opposite  of  refining. 
There  is  no  college  life  to  inculcate  a  system  of  self-discipline, 
and  the  young  man,  just  released  from  a  school  where  his 
every  move  has  been  controlled,  is  thrown  entirely  on  his 
own  resources  among  utter  strangers,  often  with  very  grave 
results  to  his  character. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  BATTLEFIELD   OF  CREEDS 

Ever  since  the  Reformation  Germany  has  been  a  battlefield 

of  creeds.     Divided  as  it  is  into  two  great  camps — Protestant 

and  Catholic — the  struggle  then  begun  has 

"^^^cSoT^"^    ^^^^  continued  without  cessation  until  to-day. 

By    the    Imperial    Constitution    complete 

freedom  of  conscience  and  absolute  toleration  are  assured 

to  aU  Germans  ;  but  in  the  carrying-out  of  that  clause  of  the 

Constitution  a  considerable  difference  is  made  between  the 

sects,    Jews    and    Dissenters    being   made    to    suffer   many 

disadvantages. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  no  candidate  for  an  official  position 

would  have  the  slightest  hope  of  success  if  he  or  she  were  a 

Dissenter.     The  candidate  may  be  a  Hebrew, 

Exclude"  ^^  *^^^  ^^^*  ^^  ^^^^  virtually  a  State  religion  ; 
but  for  the  rank  of  officer  in  the  active  Army 
or  Navy  Hebrews  are  not  eligible.  There  are  also  other 
disabilities  for  Dissenters,  in  that  they  are  not  permitted 
to  go  through  a  religious  marriage  ceremony  nor  to  have 
their  children  baptized,  and  they  are  deprived  of  burial  in 
consecrated  ground. 

Religion  has  undoubtedly  exercised  an  immense  influence 
on  the  life  and  development  of  the  Empire.  After  the  French 
war,  in  all  probability  in  consequence  of  the  general  mourning, 
Germany  for  a  period  seemed  to  be  overflowing  with  religious 
fervour.  The  churches  were  always  filled.  The  movement 
for  Sunday  observance,  which  had  to  a  great  extent  lapsed, 
became  powerful,  and,  helped  by  the  demand  of  the  workers, 
a  weekly  rest-day  has  now  become  compulsory  in  all  factories, 
while  shopkeepers  are  forced  to  close  during  church  hours 
and  from  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  onward. 

94 


Photo  by 


PULPIT,    TRIER    CATHEDRAL 


OF 


The  Battlefield  of  Creeds  95 

When,  however,  the  sharp  grief  over,  the  war  losses  began 
to  be  allayed  by  the  passage  of  time,  the  German  people 
became  greatly  dissatisfied  with  the  poor 
P^^'^P^^^^""  religious  fare  offered  them.  This  dissatisfac- 
tion has  led  to  the  development  of  a  deep 
feeling  of  indifference  and  a  wholesale  desertion  of  the  Church, 
especially  by  the  working  classes. 

There  are  to  all  intents  and  purposes  three  State  Churches 
— the  EvangeHcal,  the  Catholic  and  the  Hebrew — each  of 
which  has  the  right  to  levy  taxes  for  its  own  purposes  on  all 
its  nominal  members.  The  sum  raised  depends  upon  the 
amount  of  income-tax  paid  by  the  person  taxed,  generally 
being  15  or  20  per  cent,  on  the  total  of  the  income-tax. 

The  latest  returns  show  that  the  EvangeHcal  Church  raised 
in  1908  taxes  to  the  amount  of  £2,184,153;  the  Catholic 
Church  £779,667,  and  the  Hebrew  Church  £298,176.  Besides 
these  amounts,  in  the  country  districts,  the  parishioners  were 
compelled  to  supply  a  considerable  quantity  in  kind.  The 
Budget  of  the  Prussian  Ministry  of  Public  Worship  also 
provides  nearly  £400,000  annually  in  aid  of  stipends  and 
expends  besides  £900,000  on  public  worship. 

Of  the   three   State   Churches   the   National   Evangelical 

is  numerically  the  most  important,  comprising  at  the  present 

moment    nominally   62*1    per   cent,    of   the 

Chunfhes        population,  a  decrease  of  nearly  1  per  cent. 

since    1895.      Its  organisation   is   extremely 

simple. 

The  sovereigns  of  the  different  States  are  the  nominal  heads 
of  the  Church,  but  where  they  happen  to  be  Catholic,  as,  for 
instance,  in  Bavaria  and  Saxony  and  some  of  the  smaller 
States,  their  powers  are  transferred  to  the  Ministry  of  Public 
Worship  and  the  Superior  Consistory.  The  States  are  divided 
into  several  consistories  or  synods,  each  of  which  comprises 
several  dioceses  composed  of  a  number  of  parishes.  The 
hierarchy  is  formed  of  general  superintendents,  superintendents 
and  parish  clergy. 


96  Germany  of  the  Germans 

Each  parish  elects  or  selects  a  Church  council,  which  meets 
occasionally  under  the  chairmanship  of  the  pastor  to  transact 
Church  business  and  parish  affairs. 

Every  candidate  for  the  clerical  career  must  have  attended 

a  classical  school  for  the  full  term  of  eight  or  nine  years. 

Thence  he  proceeds  to  the  university,  where  he 

"^^Career^^  must  study  for  at  least  three  years,  during 
which  time  he  attends  lectures  for  from  four 
to  five  hours  daily,  and  must  also  study  for  at  least  three 
hours  a  day  in  private.  The  fees  for  the  lectures  are  very  low. 
The  first  examination,  the  passage  of  which  entitles  him  to 
become  a  candidate  for  the  ministry,  takes  place  after  three 
years,  and  is  very  severe.  The  successful  candidate,  who  is 
now  officially  recognised,  must  continue  his  studies  for  another 
two  years,  in  the  meantime  taking  a  short  course  in  the 
science  of  teaching,  before  he  is  admitted  to  the  second  and 
final  examination  for  ordination.  Probably  in  the  interval  he 
has  benefited  by  one  of  the  many  bursaries  for  theological 
students  and  has  entered  a  seminary  where  he  obtains  every- 
thing free.  Before  final  ordination  he  must  be  twenty-five 
years  old  and  have  served  his  year  in  the  army. 

The  pastors  are  nominated  by  the  consistories  representing 
the  State,  but  the  consent  of  the  parish  has  to  be  obtained 
before  a  clergyman  can  take  up  his  duties.  The  pastors  are 
not  regarded  as  direct  State  officials,  although  the  State 
guarantees  them  a  minimum  income. 

In  the  majority  of  instances  the  Protestant  pastors  belong 
to  the  lower  middle  class,  many  of  them  being  the  sons  of 
small   Government   officials,   clergymen   and 
^PaSore'^*      school  teachers.     Their  stipends  are  regulated 
by  the  Ministry  of  Public  Worship  and  range 
in  Prussia  from  ;f90  to  £210  a  year,  according  to  the  importance 
of  the  parish  and  length  of  service  ;  but  in  addition  free  resi- 
dence is  given,  with  generally  a  small  glebe.     In  Berlin  and 
other  great  cities  the  stipends  are  higher,  averaging  £350,  but 
ranging  up  to  £850  a  year,  with  an  allowance  instead  of  the 


The  Battlefield  of  Creeds  97 

glebe  of  £7S  a  year.  All  are  entitled  to  fairly  substantial  pen- 
sions on  retirement,  and  the  widows  and  orphans  of  the  clergy 
are  provided  for  by  means  of  a  compulsory  insurance  fund. 

As  a  class,  with  some  few  notable  exceptions,  the  State 
clergy  cannot  be  said  to  have  much  personal  hold  over  their 
congregations.  In  their  sermons  they  are  prone  to  become 
academic  and  to  speak  over  the  heads  of  the  people,  and  the 
lack  of  simplicity  is  so  great  that  the  congregation  often  leaves 
the  church  with  only  a  very  vague  understanding  of  the  subject 
that  has  been  preached  about.  Touch  and  sympathy  with  the 
strivings  of  the  people  seem  to  be  almost  entirely  missing. 

This  has  no  doubt  been  a  great  factor  in  the  shrinkage  of 

Church  membership,  which  has  progressed  so  rapidly  in  the 

past  three  or  four  years.     In  Berlin  alone 

Flight  from      J7QQQ  iQ^^2\  secessions  have  been  handed 

the  Lhurch.  i        /^i         -i  ,       .  .        .        , 

m   to   the    Church  authonties   m   the    past 

three  years.      In  1908  they  numbered  over  10,000.      Recent 

statistics  show  that   only  9   per  cent,  of   the  members  of 

the  Evangelical  Church  ever  take  the  Communion. 

In  the  whole  of  the  Berlin  Protestant  churches  in  1908  only 
50,264  persons  took  the  Holy  Communion  out  of  a  total  of 
considerably  over  500,000  adult  members  of  the  Evangelical 
State  Church. 

The  working  classes,  urged  thereto  by  their  Socialist  leaders, 
who  strongly  object  to  the  union  of  Church  and  State,  are 
formally  leaving  the  Church  in  serried  ranks.  The  step  has 
to  be  taken  with  aU  the  legal  formality  of  a  sworn  affidavit, 
which  must  be  coimtersigned  by  the  authorities.  The  move- 
ment has  become  so  strong  that  the  Chiu-ch  authorities  have 
issued  warnings  in  aU  the  newspapers  as  to  the  forfeits  the 
people  are  making ;   but  these  have  hitherto  been  in  vain. 

The  Socialists  argue  that  the  Church  is  far  too  indifferent 
to  the  weU-being  of  the  working  man,  and  that  the  pastors 
endeavour  to  influence  the  political  opinions  of  the  people  in  an 
intolerable  way.  They  accuse  the  clergy  of  being  first  State 
servants  and  Christian  teachers  only  as  a  secondary  business. 

7-(a39x) 


98  Germany  of  the  Germans 

One  of  the  most  usual  causes  given  by  the  unofficial  middle 
classes  for  their  action  in  leaving  the  Church  is  naturally  the 

compulsion  to  pay  Church  taxes.     This  would 
CauTes         ^^^  appear  so  harsh  if  the  ordinary  uniformed 

policemen  were  not  used  to  enforce  the 
Church's  demands.  The  parishioners  rarely  receive  a  visit  from 
a  clergyman  to  inquire  into  their  spiritual  needs.  If,  however, 
they  are  entered  on  the  police  registers  either  as  Catholic 
or  Protestant  or  Jew,  at  some  time  in  the  year  a  paper  will 
be  presented  by  a  revenue  official  demanding  payment  of 
Church  taxes.  If  these  are  not  paid  at  the  exact  moment 
stated,  the  brokers  are  put  in  and  great  expense  is  occasioned. 
In  the  case  of  a  foreigner  who  registers  himself  as  a  Dissenter 
the  trouble  is  endless.  Time  after  time,  at  the  instance  of 
the  Church  authorities,  the  police  visit  him,  demanding  a 
certificate  proving  that  he  has  left  the  National  Church.  He, 
of  course,  never  having  belonged  to  it,  cannot  produce  proof 
that  he  has  left  it,  and  an  inquisitorial  cross-examination  is 
then  carried  out  by  the  police  in  order  to  obtain  some  indica- 
tion whether  the  offending  Dissenter,  or  his  wife  or  children, 
who  have  furnished  no  proof  of  desertion  of  the  National 
Church,  have  been  baptised  or  married  in  a  church  anywhere, 
and  if  it  develops  that  such  an  act  has  happened,  the  Dissenter 
is  mulcted  in  taxation  for  the  Protestant  or  Catholic  Church, 
whichever  it  may  have  been.  These  are  facts  from  personal 
experience.  A  foreigner  may  possibly  escape  paying  the 
taxes  to  the  German  Church  by  joining  a  church  of  his  own 
nationality,  if  one  exists  in  the  district  in  which  he  resides, 
and  paying  for  a  pew  therein  ;  but  this  privilege  depends  on 
the  Church  authorities. 

The  formal  break  with  the  Church  is,  however,  of  small 
proportions  compared   with   the   growing   apathy  of   those 

who,  while  continuing  to  pay  their  Church 
'^E/emenr*'^*  ^^^^^  ^^^  remaining  nominally  members  of 

the  various  churches,  display  absolute  indif- 
ference.     They  take  no  part  whatever  in  services  or  Church 


The  Battlefield  of  Creeds  99 

work.  This  is  more  marked  among  the  wealthier  middle 
classes  than  any  others. 

Many  of  these  are  earnest,  good  people,  who  without  doubt 
retain  their  Christian  belief,  but  look  on  the  official  Church 
as  unsatisfying.  The  Church,  however,  is  regarded  as  one  of 
the  strongest  pillars  of  the  monarchy  and,  devotedly  loyal  as 
they  are,  they  consider  that  it  is  their  duty  to  belong  to 
the  State  Church.  Then,  too,  the  women  cling  to  the 
State  Church,  as  hitherto  the  free  religions  have  not  been 
developed  to  such  an  extent  as  to  offer  them  a  substitute, 
and.  Christian  as  they  are  in  spirit,  they  say  to  themselves : 
"  Better  an  unsatisfying  State  Church  than  no  Church 
at  all !  " 

Indications  are  not  wanting  that  some  of  the  younger  and 

more  hberal  pastors  have  noticed  the  shrinkage  of  Church 

members  and  recognised  its  causes,  and  are 

^eformT       taking  steps  to  reform  their  methods.     The 

fight  for  reform  will  be  a  severe  one  ;    but 

with  a  nation  like  Germany,  which  has  a  deep-rooted  desire 

for  religion,  the  victory  will  probably  go  to  the  reformers. 

The  separation  of  the  Church  from  the  State  will  almost 

inevitably  be  an  accessory  to  this  victory  and  the  Church 

will  then  take  its  proper  position  in  the  nation. 

In  the  meantime,  the  whole  working  of  religious  life  in 
Germany  seems  to  have  descended  to  a  purely  mechanical 
basis.  The  eight  years  spent  by  the  children  in  learning 
texts  and  creeds  and  Psalms  by  heart  are  followed  by  a  further 
uninteresting  drilling  of  the  young  people  for  confirmation, 
during  which  the  Bible  becomes  to  them  a  dull  and  dreary 
text-book.  The  child  sees  in  the  whole  course  of  religious 
instruction  nothing  but  a  compulsion  to  learn  things  which 
he  does  not  understand  spontaneously  and  which  are  not 
properly  explained  to  him  by  means  of  the  lessons  applicable 
to  daily  life  to  be  drawn  from  them.  So  soon,  therefore,  as 
he  reaches  an  age  when  he  is  permitted  to  decide  for  himself 
he  gives  it  all  up  and  lapses  into  indifference. 


100  Germany  of  the  Germans 

The  other  great  State  Church,  the  Catholic,  has  during  the 

past  fifteen  years  improved  its  position  in  the  Empire.     In 

1895  it  numbered  only  35'8  per  cent,  of  the 

'^^ChMch°^*^  population  ;  now  it  comprises  36-5  per  cent. 
Whereas  Protestantism  is  overwhelmingly 
represented  throughout  the  centre  of  the  country.  Southern, 
Eastern  and  Western  Germany  are  principally  Catholic. 

Remarkable  evidence  of  the  activity  of  the  Catholics  in 
Germany  is  shown  in  some  statistics  just  published.  The 
number  of  members  of  the  Catholic  Church  throughout  the 
Empire  has,  according  to  these  figures,  increased  in  forty 
years  by  77  per  cent.,  from  12,489,371  to  22,094,492.  The 
number  of  establishments  belonging  to  Catholic  brotherhoods 
and  sisterhoods  increased  during  the  same  period  from  996 
to  5,211,  while  the  number  of  persons  residing  therein  rose 
from  9,735  to  nearly  60,000. 

To  judge  by  the  increase  in  numbers,  the  Catholic  Church 
appeals  more  to  the  sympathies  of  the  people  than  does  the 
Protestant.  At  any  rate,  the  priest  is  nearly  always  more 
popular  than  the  pastor.  He  certainly  seems  to  exercise 
an  influence  on  his  flock  politically  and  thus  secures  in  most 
of  the  local  State  Parliaments,  as  well  as  in  the  Imperial 
Parliament,  a  powerful  representation  of  Catholicism. 

Perhaps  the  thrifty  manner  of  life  of  the  Catholic  priest 

appeals  directly  to  the  peasants,  for  the  Catholic  Church 

finds  the  majority  of  its  adherents  in  the 

Priest  IS        agricultural  districts.     The  priest  lives  among 

them  very  modestly  on  his  small  guaranteed 

stipend  and  takes  interest  in  everything  that  happens  in  his 

parish.     In  many  cases  he  is  himself  a  son  of  the  land. 

He  has  to  pass  through  a  training  which  is  probably  more 
severe  than  that  of  the  Protestant  pastor,  and  is  always  under 
a  stricter  discipline.  His  education  follows  practically  the 
same  course  as  that  of  the  Protestant  pastor,  except  that  he 
must  attend  a  university  with  a  Catholic  theological  faculty, 
of  which  there  are  eight :  Munich,  Strassburg,  Bonn,  Breslau, 


OF  ^    / 


The  Battlefield  of  Creeds  101 

Miinster,  Tubingen,  Wiirzburg  and  Freiburg.  At  its  con- 
clusion, if  he  has  been  ordained  sub-deacon,  he  is  usually 
dispensed  from  active  military  service,  and  nominated  to  a 
parish  by  the  bishop,  with  the  approval  of  the  State  authori- 
ties, which  do  not  interfere  with  the  hierarchy,  the  discipline 
or  the  customs  of  the  Church  in  any  way. 

Catholic  clergymen  begin  with  £15  annually  as  sub-priest, 
rising  after  five  years'  service  to  £90  as  priest,  after  ten  years 

to  £115,   after  fifteen  years  to  £130,   after 
Sti   ^*d  twenty  years  to  £145,  and  after  twenty-five 

years  to  £160.  This  is  raised  by  the  col- 
lections in  the  church  when  possible,  but  if  the  parish  is 
too  poor,  the  stipend  is  raised  by  means  of  a  Church  tax 
which  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  are  empowered  to  levy 
'pro  rata  on  the  income-tax  of  the  Catholic  parishioners.  A 
proposal  is  on  foot  to  increase  the  maximum  stipend  obtain- 
able to  £200  annually,  which  if  passed  will  change  the  period- 
ical augmentations  in  the  following  manner  :  The  priest  will 
begin  with  £90  as  before,  but  after  only  three  years'  service 
will  receive  an  increase  to  £100,  after  six  years  to  £1 10,  after 
nine  years  to  £125,  after  twelve  to  £140,  after  fifteen  to  £155, 
after  eighteen  to  £170,  after  twenty-one  to  £185,  and  after 
twenty-four  years  to  £200.  The  Government  had  proposed 
to  make  the  maximum  £225,  but  the  bishops  considered  the 
higher  sum  would  lead  to  the  disappearance  of  the  simple  mode 
of  life  among  the  priests.  The  Prussian  Government  grants 
£175,000  yearly  to  the  Catholic  Church  to  assist  in  payment 
of  stipends. 

There  are  many  liberal  Catholics  in  Germany  who  regard 
Romanism  and  Catholicism  as  two  entirely  different  things. 

Among  these  are  some  of  the  University  pro- 

r  iu^r  fessors,  who  have  lost  the  confidence  of  the 

Latnolics.         -rr     •  1  •      •  •         1     • 

Vatican  because  they  persist  in  pursuing  their 

studies  and  teachings  in  an  unrestrained  and  unprejudiced 

way.    They  are  often  disciplined  by  Rome  for  expressing 

\^iO|thodo^  views,  which  tend  towards  adapting  Catholicism 


102  Germany  of  the  Germans 

to  modem  ideas.  The  Government,  whose  officials  the 
professors  are,  has  in  many  cases,  especially  in  Bavaria,  had  to 
give  way  to  the  pressure  of  the  Church  and  remove  these 
liberal-minded  heretical  professors  from  their  chairs,  as  the 
hierarchy  forbade  Catholic  students  to  attend  their  lectures. 
Notwithstanding  these  set-backs,  the  liberal  movement 
appears  to  be  making  great  headway  in  Germany,  where  the 
people  are  disinclined  to  dismiss  all  the  teachings  of  science 
at  the  bidding  of  what  they  are  beginning  to  regard  as  a 
foreign  church. 

The  Catholic  Church,  as  well  as  the  Evangelical,  has  also 
its  struggle  against  the  indifference  of  the  people  and  their 
reluctance  to  attend  places  of  worship,  although  the  formal 
giving  up  of  Church  membership  does  not  occur  so  often  as 
in  the  Protestant  Church. 

The  Jewish  Church  has  similar  rights  to  those  possessed  by 
the  Catholic  and  Protestant  Churches  in  regard  to  levying 
_^  Church  taxes  on  Jewish  parishioners.     The 

Jewish  Church  is  formally  controlled  by  the 
State,  which,  however,  never  or  rarely  interferes.  The 
regulations  of  the  Church  vary  in  the  different  provinces  and 
States,  and  even  in  the  districts  of  one  province  they  sometimes 
differ.  Each  synagogue  is  practically  self-governing  and 
chooses  its  own  rabbi.  In  Bavaria,  Wiirttemberg  and  Baden 
the  Jewish  Church  is  regulated  by  synods. 

In  the  schools  a  strong  feeling  has  recently  arisen  against 

the  prominent  part  taken  by  the  clergy  in  the  direction  of 

the    children's    education.     In    Saxony    the 

Schools         elementary  school  teachers  have  gone  so  far 

as  to  demand  that  religious  instruction,  or 

Bible    readings,    should    be    given    without    any   sectarian 

comment.     They  are  strongly  supported  by  most  parents  in 

their  demand,  but  the  Church  authorities  offer  the  sternest 

opposition  to  any  such  proposal. 

Although  in  everything  else  the  German  law  denies  any 
prson  under  the  age  of  twenty-one  the  right  to  make  contracts 


The  Battlefield  of  Creeds  103 

or  take  any  important  step  without  the  consent  of  parent  or 

guardian,  it  gives  every  child  of  fourteen  the  right  to  decide 
which  religion  it  shall  follow,  even  against  the  wishes  of  the 
parents.  It  seems  rather  anomalous  that  such  an  important 
step,  which  should  be  preceded  by  ripe  thought,  should  be 
left  to  the  decision  of  an  infant.  It  would  seem  preferable 
to  extend  the  age  of  confirmation — which,  as  has  been  ex- 
plained, is  virtually  compulsory  in  Germany — to  the  attain- 
ment of  the  legal  majority,  meanwhile  carrying  out  religious 
instruction  during  the  child's  schooldays  on  absolutely 
unsectarian  lines. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  LETTER  OF  THE  LAW 

The  letter  of  the  law  is  adhered  to  in  Germany  perhaps  more 

than  in  any  other  country. 

the^Code  ^°         ^^^  ^^^  ^^^  equity,  unless  equity  coincides 

with  the  law,  is  the  fundamental  principle 

underlying  the  judgments  of  all  German  courts,   although 

considerable  power  is  given  to  the  judge  by  the  Code  to 

exercise  his  own  personal  conviction. 

The  first  question  the  judge  asks  himself  is,  "  What  does 
the  Code  say  ?  "  For  the  law — criminal,  civil  and  commercial 
— has  been  codified,  and  crimes  and  illegalities,  with  their 
respective  punishments,  are  laid  down  in  black  and  white  with 
absolute  precision,  but  giving  a  maximum  and  minimum 
within  which  the  court  must  limit  itself. 

All  judgments  must  be  written,  giving  the  articles  of  the 
Code  on  which  they  are  based,  and  in  every 
TudSn^nt       ^^^^  ^^^  parties  have  the  right  to  appeal. 

It  must  be  understood  that  in  all  criminal 
cases  the  State  is  a  party,  for,  according  to  German  law,  not 
only  does  a  person  by  an  illegal  act  injure  the  person  who  has 
been  affected  by  that  act,  but  also  at  the  same  time  the  State 
itself,  and  therefore  the  State,  in  the  person  of  the  representa- 
tive of  the  Minister  of  Justice,  appears  as  complainant,  con- 
ducts the  case,  and  demands  punishment  of  the  offence.  Only 
rarely,  and  then  in  simple  cases  of  insult  and  assault,  may  a 
private  person  prosecute  alone. 

The  Criminal  Code  has  existed  in  its  main  lines  since  the 
foundation  of  the  Empire  in  1871,  although  since  that  year 
many  amendments  have  been  added.  Only  offences  which 
are  included  in  the  Code  are  regarded  as  punishable.  Offences 
against  the  custom  of  a  certain  district  are  not  recognised  as 
unlawful. 

104 


The  Letter  of  the  Law  105 

The  Criminal  Code  divides  offences  into  three  classes.  The 
first  of  these,  which  comprises  crimes  of  commission  such  as 
violence  and  fraud,  entails  penalties  ranging 
Cod*^^  from  five  years'  hard  labour  in  a  convict 
prison  to  death,  and  involves  trial  before  a 
jury.  The  second  includes  smaller  objective  felonies  and 
crimes  of  omission  and  involves  fines  over  £1  10s.  or  imprison- 
ment up  to  five  years  by  the  judges  of  a  criminal  court.  The 
third  deals  with  small  misdemeanours,  punishable  by  fine  up 
to  £1  10s.  or  imprisonment  for  a  short  .term  by  a  poHce 
court. 

There  is  a  large  number  of  courts  with  differing  jurisdictions. 

Police  officers,  in  the  first  case,  have  the  right  to  inflict  fines 

definitely  stated  in  the  police  orders  for  certain 

C  i^  minor  misdemeanours.     The  parties  in  such 

a  case,  however,  have  the  right  to  ask  to  be 

sent  before  the  Amtsgericht,  or  court  of  first  instance.     These 

courts,  of  which  there  are  1,944,  try  petty  criminal  cases  and 

civil  cases  involving  sums  up  to  £15.     They  are  presided  over 

by  a  professional  judge,  who  may  caU  in  two  lay  assessors  to 

assist  him. 

The  Schoffengericht  (with  a  bench  consisting  of  three  pro- 
fessional judges  and  two  la5mien,  something  like  grand  jury- 
men) has  jurisdiction  in  criminal  cases  with  power  to  inflict 
imprisonment  up  to  three  months  and  in  civil  cases  involving 
sums  up  to  ;f30. 

Then  follows  the  Landgericht  (a  provincial  or  county  court), 
of  which  there  are  176,  composed  usually  of  three  judges  in 
civil  cases  and  five  in  criminal  cases,  which  hears  appeals  from 
the  Amtsgericht  and  also  possesses  original  jurisdiction  in 
more  important  civil  and  criminal  cases  and  in  divorce  suits. 

A  further  step  is  the  Oberlandgericht  (superior  provincial 
court),  with  seven  judges,  who  hear  further  appeals  and  also 
try  serious  civil  and  criminal  cases. 

The  Schwurgericht  (a  court  of  assizes  with  three  professional 
judges  and  a  jury)  tries  cases  of  felony. 


106  Germany  of  the  Germans 

Above  all  of  these  is  the  Imperial  Supreme  Court,  which  tries 
treason  cases,  and  to  which  a  final  appeal  in  any  case  may  go 
and  whose  decision  cannot  be  reversed.  In  Bavaria,  however, 
there  is  a  Supreme  Provincial  Court,  which  possesses  virtually 
the  same  powers  as  the  Imperial  Supreme  Court. 

There  are  altogether  9,686  judges.  According  to  the  latest 
statistics,  which  relate  to  1907,  these  sentenced  in  that  year 

Th    T  H  530,120  persons  for  crimes,   misdemeanours 

and  all  kinds  of  offences. 

In  every  department  of  justice  there  has  of  late  years  been 
a  remarkable  increase  of  work,  so  that,  despite  the  large  force 
of  judges,  there  is  always  considerable  delay.  This  is  natu- 
rally increased  by  the  intervention  in  nearly  all  cases  of  the 
State  as  prosecutor. 

As  soon  as  a  criminal  case  is  started,  all  the  documents 

are  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Crown  counsel,  who  opens 

an  investigation.     He  has  at  his  disposal  aU 

Counsel         ^^^  police  and  legal  authorities  of  the  Empire. 

On  the  result  of  his  inquiry  depends  whether 

the  charge  shall  be  carried  into  court  or  allowed  to  lapse  for 

lack  of  proof.     Should  the  case  go  into  court,  the  Crown 

counsel  watches  the  action  until  the  end,  and  in  most  cases 

calls  for  judgment,  suggesting  to  the  judge  the  sentence  he 

thinks  is  called  for. 

It  is  customary  to  consider  an  accused  person  as  guilty  until 
he  proves  himself  innocent,  and  this  gives  rise  to  a  great 
amount  of  criticism,  for  it  has  happened 
hinocence*  frequently  that  an  innocent  person  has  been 
detained  many  months  on  suspicion  of  an 
offence  which  he  has  not  committed.  The  preliminary  inves- 
tigation of  a  crime  often  lasts  nine  or  ten  months,  and  it  is  a 
great  hardship  on  the  accused  to  be  detained  so  long  if  there 
is  no  direct  proof  of  his  guilt  and  he  himself  is  not  in  a  position 
to  bring  evidence  of  his  innocence. 

It  must  be  added,  however,  that  in  most  cases  an  accused 
person  is  set  free  while  awaiting  trial,  unless  the  crime  is  a 


The  Letter  of  the  Law  107 

serious  one  and  circumstantial  evidence  is  very  strong,  or 
the  authorities  suspect  the  accused  of  the  intention  of  fleeing 
from  justice.  Persons  without  a  domicile,  those  refusing 
information  about  themselves,  foreigners,  and  people  who 
are  suspected  of  attempting  to  destroy  evidence  or  to  suborn 
witnesses  are  all  liable  to  detention  under  the  Code  while 
awaiting  trial. 

Among  advocates  there  is  a  very  strong  feeling  against 
the  provisions  of  the  Criminal  Code  which  limit  the  right  of 
the  counsel  for  an  accused  person  to  examine  the  evidence 
which  is  to  be  brought  against  the  prisoner  before  he  comes 
into  court.  Permission  for  him  to  do  this  depends  on  the 
decision  of  the  Crown  prosecutor,  who  is  of  course  conducting 
the  case  against  the  accused.  The  defending  barrister  is  also 
much  hindered  in  his  work  by  the  rule  that  he  may  only  see 
his  client  in  the  presence  of  a  court  official. 

When  an  accused  person  is  unable  to  employ  an  advocate, 
one  is  appointed  by  the  court  to  assist  him  in  his  defence. 
Counsel  for  the  defence  in  criminal  cases  is 
entitled  to  a  fee  of  12s.  in  the  courts  of  first 
instance,  20s.  in  those  of  second  instance,  and  £1  in  the 
higher  courts  ;  while  the  court  fees  in  criminal  cases  involving 
a  fine  of  from  Is.  to  20s.  or  imprisonment  from  one  to  ten  days 
amount  to  5s.,  increasing  gradually  until  they  attain  in  a  case 
involving  £150  fine  or  three  to  ten  years'  imprisonment,  £9. 

Equality  before  the  law,  without  regard  to  social  standing, 
is  naturally  the  foundation  of  the  German  as  of  other  codes. 
In  practice,  however,  it  has  been  found  that  systematic 
equality  is  impossible,  and  many  exceptions  are  made,  so 
that  judgments  vary  considerably.  A  wealthy  offender,  for 
example,  if  fined  for  a  misdemeanour  at  the  same  rate  as  a 
poor  man  would  be  for  a  similar  offence,  does  not  in  fact 
suffer  so  much  ;  while  a  man  of  superior  education,  sentenced 
to  a  strictly  laid  down  term  of  detention  for  a  crime  which  he 
has  committed,  suffers  considerably  more  than  a  tramp  used 
to  hardships  woidd  do  if  committed  to  prison  for  a  similar 


108  Germany  of  the  Germans 

term  for  the  same  offence.  In  the  same  way,  a  prominent 
public  man  brought  into  court  for  a  crime  endures  a  more 
considerable  amount  of  suffering  owing  to  the  publicity  of 
the  case  than  does  an  unknown  criminal. 

All  these  individual  differences  are  taken  into  consideration 
by  the  tribunals  and,  in  spite  of  the  outcry  among  unthinking 
people  for  the  unwavering  application  of  the 
^"c^S^^*  same  pains  and  penalties  to  all,  German 
judges  are  permitted  to  grant  ameliorating 
conditions  to  prisoners  when  they  consider  such  pro- 
cedure advisable,  and,  as  a  consequence,  many  cases  are 
decided  in  camera.  This  is  more  especially  so  when  the 
Minister  of  Justice  is  of  opinion  that  public  reports  of  a  case 
would  affect  injuriously  public  morals,  and  for  this  reason 
all  divorce  cases  are  heard  in  private  and  long  reports  of 
shameful  evidence  connected  with  such  cases  are  unknown. 
Only  the  verdict  of  the  court  is  compulsorily  delivered  in 
public. 

The  old-fashioned  idea  of  measuring  the  severity  of  the 

punishment  according  to  the  seriousness  of  the  crime  appears 

„     .  ,  to  be  eradually  outliving  itself  and  to  be  giving 

Punishments.        ,^,  ■^,  ^         -jx-  ht 

place  to  more  humane  considerations.    More 

stress  is  laid  on  the  individuality  of  the  offender  and  the 

causes  that  led  to  his  crime.     It  has  been  proved  by  lengthy 

experience  among  prisoners  that  a  man  who  has  committed 

a  single  crime,  perhaps  a  serious  one,  through  thoughtlessness 

is  often  turned  into  a  chronic  criminal  if  sentenced  to  a  long 

term  of  imprisonment,  which  seems  to  embitter  him  against 

society  instead  of  bringing  about  repentance. 

The  terms  of  the  Criminal  Code  permit  the  probationary 

release   of   well-behaved   convicts    after   they   have   served 

three-quarters  of  their  sentences,  or  at  least  one  year,  but  this 

is  not  a  right.     They  may  be  forced  to  serve  the  whole  of  their 

unexpired  term  if,  during  their  probation,  they  relapse  into 

crime.     Statistics   show   that    of   the    number   released   on 

probation  only  about  2  per  cent,  relapse, 


i 


The  Letter  of  the  Law  109 

There  is  a  movement  on  foot  to  empower  judges  to  deliver 

sentences  mentioning  a  minimum  and  a  maximum  term,  so 

that  if  the  prisoner  shows  signs  of  reform  he 

Minimum  and    should  be  released  on  the  expiration  of  the 
Maximum  .    .  ^     .  •     xi  r        ^         •         •     •      i 

Sentences.       mmimum,  but  m  the  case  of  a  chronic  criminal 

he  should  be  detained  for  the  maximum  term. 

The  law  affecting  first  offenders,  which  has  been  in  force 
since  1895  in  every  State  except  Mecklenburg-Strelitz  and 
the  two  Reusses — even  there  the  rulers  have  the  right  to  apply 
it — has  been  of  great  benefit.  According  to  the  last  statistical 
returns,  during  the  year  1908  no  fewer  than  28,004  persons 
profited  by  a  conditional  release  from  serving  terms  of 
imprisonment,  which  in  most  cases  led  to  an  entire  release 
from  punishment.  In  Bavaria  conditional  release  is  granted 
in  no  less  than  64  per  cent,  of  criminal  cases,  and  in 
Prussia  in  31  per  cent.  Of  the  persons  thus  conditionally 
released  over  80  per  cent,  are  never  called  on  to  go  to 
prison. 

One  of  the  great  problems  in  Germany,  as  in  other  countries, 
is  how  to  employ  prisoners  without  injury  to  free  and  honest 
workers.  There  are  on  an  average  60,000 
uSottf  able-bodied  prisoners  in  German  prisons.  In 
most  cases,  they  are  kept  in  absolute  solitary 
confinement  in  well-aired,  roomy  cells,  where  they  work  at 
some  trade — carpentry,  typesetting,  shoemaking,  book- 
binding, tailoring.  The  name  of  the  prisoner  is  printed  on 
the  inside  of  the  cell-door,  with  the  length  of  sentence  and  the 
date  of  liberation.  On  the  outside  of  the  door  is  the  prisoner's 
number  and  occupation.  A  prisoner  remains  absolutely 
unknown  to  his  fellows. 

Prisoners  earn  a  certain  amount  of  money  by  their  work, 
of  which  they  are  permitted  to  spend  a  portion  on  extra  food. 
This  usually  takes  the  form  of  butter  and  dripping,  as  fat  is 
entirely  lacking  from  the  prison  food. 

Letters  are  permitted  to  be  received  and  written,  under 
control,  at  stated  intervals. 


110  Germany  of  the  Germans 

The  system  of  solitary  confinement  has  a  remarkable  effect 

on  the  intellect  of  the  prisoner.     At  the  conclusion  of  his  term, 

if   long,    everything    outside    is   strange    to 

Confinement  ^^"^'  ^^  ^^^  ^^^  ^^^^  allowed  newspapers 
and  the  magazines  given  him,  if  he  conducts 
himself  properly,  are  of  the  dull  religious  character. 

School  is  held  and  prisoners  taught  in  classes  according  to 
their  previous  knowledge  or  ignorance.  They  do  not  see  each 
other  in  school  or  church,  where,  however,  they  can  all  be  seen 
by  the  teacher  or  clergyman  as  they  sit  in  their  boxes  around 
a  semicircle. 

Corporal  punishment  and  withdrawal  of  warm  rations 
are  often  inflicted  for  petty  offences  committed  by  the 
convicts.  The  regulations  are  most  strict,  and  are  carried 
out  by  old  non-commissioned  officers  of  the  Army,  who  have 
become  warders  generally  after  nine  or  twelve  years'  service. 
The  governor  is  usually  a  retired  officer. 

Prisons  for  women,  in  the  opinion  of  persons  who  have  made 
a  study  of  the  subject,  leave  much  to  be  desired.  Although 
the  principle  of  solitary  confinement  is  sup- 
Women  s  posed  to  have  been  adopted,  in  many  of  the 
prisons  not  sufficient  cells  are  provided  to 
permit  of  each  prisoner  being  separated  from  the  others,  and 
thus  first  offenders  are  often  allowed  to  come  into  contact  with 
old  offenders,  to  the  great  danger  of  transforming  the 
accidental  criminal  into  a  confirmed  criminal. 

The  procedure  in  civil  cases  is  very  simple  and  inexpensive, 
and  the  Imperial  Civil  Code,  which  has  been  in  force  in  its 

_.  .  present  form  since  1900,  is  a  model  of  precision. 

It  contains  over  2,000  paragraphs,  but  does 
not  as  yet  cover  every  branch  of  litigation.  The 
simplicity  and  cheapness  are  perhaps  responsible  for  the 
enormous  amount  of  litigation  and  the  consequent  over- 
burdening of  the  courts,  with  its  accompanying  delay.  A 
point  which  is  open  to  abuse  is  the  facility  of  appeal,  which 
may  be  claimed  as  a  right  by  any  litigant,  and  thus  trivial 


The  Letter  of  the  Law  111 

cases  are  often  carried  from  one  court  to  another  until  one 

of  the  litigants  is  worn  out.     This  is  especially  unfortunate 

for  the  poorer  classes,  although,  according  to  the  Code,  a 

person  unable  to  support  the  expense  of  a  suit  may  claim  to 

have  an  advocate  appointed  by  the  Courts  to  watch  his 

interests. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  the  courts  themselves,  in  spite  of 

the  enormous  amount  of  work  they  have  to  do,  are  seldom 

responsible   for   delays   in   litigation,   except 

Delays  in       -^^  ^^iq  superior  tribunals.     The  chief  cause  of 
Litigation.  / 

delay  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  advocates 

practise  in  all  kinds  of  courts  and  rarely  specialise.  They  are 
thus  often  pleading  in  one  court  when  another  case  in  which 
they  are  engaged  in  a  different  court  is  called.  As  the  parties 
are  compelled  to  have  counsel,  and  may  not  plead  their  own 
cases  in  his  absence,  the  judge  has  to  set  the  case  back  in 
the  list.  The  court  may  refuse  adjournment  of  a  case  if  the 
opposing  counsel  is  present  and  raises  an  objection.  Judg- 
ment is  then  entered  against  the  absentee  ;  but  this  means 
only  that  an  appeal  is  entered  for  a  new  trial,  with  the  addi- 
tional expense  of  a  fresh  hearing  fee.  The  advocate  gains 
no  pecuniary  benefit  in  such  an  event,  the  costs  being  fixed 
by  law. 

An  idea  of  the  extreme  moderation  of  the  costs  connected 

with  litigation  may  be  gathered  from  the  figures  of  the  court 

fees.     In  a  civil  suit  involving  an  amount  not 

^Coste*^       exceeding  £1,  the  court  fee  is  only  Is.  ;    if 

£45  to  £60  is  in  dispute,  it  amounts  to  £1  18s. ; 

for  £500  it  is  £5,  and  so  on,  increasing  10s.  for  every  further 

£100. 

The  advocate  is  permitted  to  charge,  in  a  civil  suit  in  a  court 
of  first  or  second  instance  involving  up  to  £1,  the  sum  of  2s. 
for  entering  the  action,  2s.  for  the  hearing,  2s.  for  composition 
of  the  dispute  out  of  court,  and  Is.  for  securing  evidence. 
Should  a  composition  be  brought  about,  the  fee  for  entering 
the  action  is  only  Is.     These  fees  are  slightly  higher  in  the 


112  Germany  of  the  Germans 

superior  appeal  courts  if  the  action  should  proceed  so  far. 
In  a  case  involving  ;f  10  to  ;f  15,  the  fees  amount  to  10s.  for 
entry,  10s.  for  the  hearing,  10s.  for  composition,  and  5s. 
for  securing  evidence,  and  in  a  suit  involving  ;f410  to 
;f500,  they  are  £3  4s.  for  entry,  £3  4s.  for  the  hearing,  £3  4s. 
for  a  composition,  and  £1  17s.  for  securing  evidence. 
Then  on  to  £2,500  they  rise  by  4s.  in  each  stage  for  every 
£100. 

The  payment  of  witnesses  in  criminal  cases  for  loss  of  time 

in  attending  court  is  under  the  control  of  the  Ministry  of 

Justice  and  is  generally  regarded  as  insuffi- 

CompenStfon.  ^^^^^-  ^^^^  people,  such  as  shopkeepers, 
hotel-keepers  and  commercial  men  employing 
assistants  or  clerks,  are  not  entitled  to  payment,  as  it  is 
considered  that  their  business  does  not  suffer  by  their  absence. 
Even  in  cases  where  payment  for  lost  time  is  granted  the 
amount  is  very  small,  in  no  case  exceeding  Is.  an  hour  or 
10s.  a  day,  but  this  is  given  only  in  extremely  rare  instances. 
As  to  the  costs  incurred  by  a  witness  in  order  to  reach  the 
court,  these  are  estimated  on  a  very  low  scale,  never  exceeding 
about  a  penny  a  mile,  while  a  labourer  would  be  given  only 
a  halfpenny  a  mile  unless  he  was  compelled  to  come  from  a 
distance  of  over  eight  miles.  He  would  also,  if  he  were 
compelled  to  remain  in  attendance  a  whole  day,  receive  only 
Is.  to  pay  for  his  meals. 

The  procedure  in  the  civil  courts  appears  to  be  somewhat 

arbitrary.     Tangible  proof  must  be  brought  by  both  parties 

as  to  the  truth  of  their  statements.     An  oath, 

Pro  ^  however,  is  taken  as  proof,  and  for  this  reason 

it  often  happens  that  a  party  to  a  dispute 

who  has  no  tangible  proof  of  his  claim  cedes  his  interest  to 

a  third  person,  who  appears  as  plaintiff  or  defendant,  as  the 

case  may  be,  and  the  original  party  is  then  sworn  as  a  witness, 

thus  establishing  what  is  regarded  as  legal  proof. 

Appeals,  as  has  been  said,  are  permissible  in  all  cases,  and 
this  is  the  reason  for  the  judgment  always  being  a  written  one, 


The  Letter  of  the  Law  113 

noting  all  the  law  points  involved.  The  judge  usually  informs 
the  parties  where  and  within  what  time  limit  the  appeal  must 
be  entered. 

In  bankruptcy  cases,  when  a  man  has  been  declared  bank- 
rupt he  can  make  no  further  payments  from  his  estate,  which 
is  then  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  receiver 

^^"f *^^  for  the  benefit  of  the  creditors.  Payments 
that  have  been  made  even  before  the  bank- 
ruptcy has  been  declared  can  also  bs  demanded  back  by  the 
receiver  and  thrown  into  the  estate.  The  period  to  which 
the  receiver  can  go  back  is  not  defined,  but  it  is  designated 
as  the  time  when  the  debtor  was  still  solvent.  The  debtor 
is  often  made  to  swear  to  the  best  of  his  knowledge,  supported 
by  as  much  proof  as  he  can  find,  when  he  considered  himself 
to  be  last  solvent. 

Another  point  which  is  very  unsatisfactory  in  the  common 
law  is  the  right  of  a  person  to  sell  his  property,  as  a  precaution, 
to  a  creditor.  Another  person  may  come  along  and  give  him 
further  credit  and  then  find  to  his  astonishment  that  the 
property  which  he  has  regarded  as  a  guarantee  for  the 
solidity  of  his  debtor  does  not  belong  to  him  at  all.  But 
should  it  be  proved  that  the  property  has  been  sold  so 
as  to  injure  the  prospects  of  other  creditors,  the  sale  does 
not  hold  good. 

One  remarkable  feature  of  the  bankruptcy  law  consists  in 

the  fact  that  a  creditor  cannot  enter  proceedings  in  bankruptcy 

against  his  debtor  unless  the  latter  possesses 

Anomaf'es       sufi&cient  property  to  pay  the  costs  of  the 

proceedings  or  the  creditor  himself  guarantees 

the  costs  with  a  sum  of  at  least  {2S.     If  the  creditor  cannot, 

or  will  not,  do  this,  the  proceedings  drop  and  a  fraudulent 

debtor  can  go  on  making  further  debts.     What  is  demanded 

by  commercial  and  other  circles  is  that  proceedings  should  be 

permitted  to  be  started  without  any  guarantee  as  to  costs, 

so  that  the  books  of  the  debtor  can  be  examined  and  a  stop 

put  to  any  further  debt-making. 

«-(«39i) 


114  Germany  of  the  Germans 

The  appointments  of  judges  are  made  by  the  head  of  the 

State  through  the  Minister  of  Justice.     Every  candidate  must 

have  studied  law  for  three  and  a  half  years, 

Judges'         during  eighteen  months  of  which  he  must 

have  been  a  student  at  a  university,  and  have 

thereafter  passed  a  severe  examination.     He  is  then  admitted 

to  the  courts  or  into  the  Attorney-General's  department  for 

a  further  three  and  a  half  years'  preparatory  service  as  judge, 

during  which  time,  however,  he  is  not  permitted  to  deliver 

judgments.     Then  comes  a  second  and  final  examination, 

the  passing  of  which  entitles  him  to  the  office  of  judge  in  any 

of  the  States  of  the  Empire.      Usually,  a  newly-appointed 

judge  acts  as  assistant  judge  for  a  considerable  time  before 

final  appointment  to  a  court. 

The  salaries  of  the  judges,  considered  from  the  standpoint 
of  other  countries,  are  strikingly  low,  ranging  from  as  little 
as  £150  up  to  only  ;f  1,000,  which  is  the  amount  received  by 
the  President  of  the  highest  court. 

Many  of  the  judges  in  the  commercial  courts  hold  honorary 
positions,  and  are  not  possessed  of  legal  education  ;  but  they 
are  always  engaged  in  suits  where  expert  knowledge  is  neces- 
sary and  they  sit  with  a  professional  judge.  They  are 
appointed  for  three  years  on  the  recommendation  of  the 
Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the  district  in  which  they  serve. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

ABOUT  THE  POOR 

The  problem  of  the  poor,  although  in  some  degree  made 

easier  in  Germany  by  the  compulsory  insurance  system,  is 

still  a  very  difficult  and  costly  one. 

A  Costly  Poor-houses,  such  as  exist  in  Great  Britain, 

Problem.  i  •      /^ 

are  unknown  m  Germany. 

Outdoor  relief  with  supervision  is  the  principle  in  general 
adopted,  the  underlying  idea  being  that  in  this  way  the  poor 
are  helped  to  help  themselves  without  becoming  pauperised. 
In  the  administration  of  the  Poor  Law  no  insuperable 
difficulty  is  found  in  dealing  with  the  aged,  the  totally  infirm, 
the  sick  and  the  orphans.  Support  has  to  be  given  to  them 
and  the  public  does  its  duty.  The  real  difficulty  begins  with 
the  willing  healthy  unemployed  workmen  for  whom  no  place 
is  available.  Then  there  are  the  lazy  and  weak-minded,  but 
otherwise  healthy,  people.  Finally,  come  the  semi-invalids 
and  bodily  weak,  whom  no  one  will  employ. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  the  municipalities  should  start 

factories  in  which  these  classes  of  the  poor  should  be  employed, 

in  the  same  way  as  in  the  country  colonies 

Suggested       ^^j.  ^-^^  workless.     Proposals  have  been  made 

Remedies.  ,  ,  ,       -,  ,   t  ■,   •  t  - 

that  the  poor  should  be  engaged  m  makmg 

paper,  ink  and  pens  for  the  Administration,  simple  appli- 
ances for  cripples  and  for  the  hospitals  and  lunatic  asylums, 
and  toys  for  the  amusement  of  the  orphans  in  the  schools. 
The  poor  people  would  not  be  boarded  or  lodged  in  the  factories, 
and  would  only  be  called  on  to  do  just  what  they  were  capable 
of  doing,  and  at  any  time  be  allowed  to  go  and  seek  other 
work  if  a  definite  chance  was  open. 

The  method  of  caring  for  the  deserving  poor  in  Germany 
has  often  been  described,  but  will  bear  brief  recapitulation. 

115 


116  Germany  of  the  Germans 

The  Elberfeld  system  of  poor  relief,  which  has  been  widely 

adopted   by  the   city  municipalities  and  country  parishes 

of    Germany,    has    obtained    a    world-wide 

^^1  ^J^^^^^^    renown.     The  fundamental  ideas  of  the  system 
are  mdividuansation  and  decentralisation. 

The  municipality  or  parish  is  divided  into  small  districts, 
each  of  which  is  again  subdivided  into  divisions.  In  each 
district  an  honorary  chairman  of  guardians  is  selected,  and 
in  each  subdivision  a  poors'  visitor  or  guardian  to  investigate 
cases,  the  subdivisional  guardians  being  under  the  control 
of  the  chairman. 

The  chairman  of  guardians  receives  as  a  rule  £\  5s.  monthly 
in  return  for  the  use  of  a  room  as  district  poor  office,  where 
the  poor  must  apply  at  certain  hours  for  relief. 

The  sub-divisions  are  made  so  small  that  each  guardian 
has  only  two,  or  at  the  most  four  cases  of  poverty  to  look 
after,  and,  as  he  is  always  placed  in  charge  of  a  district  near 
to  his  residence,  he  gets  to  know  personally  all  the  poor  people 
in  the  vicinity. 

The  committee  of  guardians  meets  every  fourteen  days 

or  month,  when  the  result  of  the  investigations  is  reported. 

The  chairmen  of  all  the  districts  meet  from 

^°^Trdilns.°^   time  to  time,  under  the  presidency  of  the 

mayor  or  chief  official  of  the  municipality 

or  country  district,  and  at  this  meeting  they  give  their  reports 

and  resolve  on  further  action  in  case  it  is  necessary  to  place 

the  poor  people  under  their  supervision  in  a  public  institution. 

In  some  cities  slight  modifications  have  been  introduced 
into  the  system,  whereby  the  district  committee  may,  on  its 
own  initiative,  extend  the  duration  of  the  assistance  given. 
In  some  cases,  paid  officials  are  appointed  to  superintend  the 
relief  of  permanent  paupers. 

The  guardian  is  in  all  cases  empowered  to  give  immediate 
relief  when  he  finds  it  necessary,  but  not  for  longer  than 
fourteen  days.  He  remains  in  constant  touch  with  the  needy 
and  gives  them  advice  as  to  where  to  seek  work  if  unemployed. 


About  the  Poor  117 

This  advice  is  not  offered  as  a  rule  in  a  bureaucratic  spirit, 
but  in  a  kindly,  helpful  way. 

Women  have  hitherto  not  been  permitted  to  participate 

largely  in  the  work  of  poor  relief,  but  a  change  has  recently 

come    about    in    some    districts,    and    4,000 

Woman's       women    are    now    members    of    guardians' 

committees. 

In  some  cases,  such  as  Berlin,  Hamburg  and  other  big 
cities,  it  has  been  found  advisable  to  appoint  boards  of 
guardians.  The  needy  have  then  to  apply  to  the  chairman, 
who  appoints  one  of  the  guardians  to  investigate.  This 
system  has  been  found  to  work  well. 

The  guardians,  as  a  rule,  pursue  their  investigations 
with  the  utmost  tact,  and  very  often  the  neighbours 
do  not  know  that  a  needy  family  is  in  receipt  of  public 
assistance. 

The  help  given  to  the  poor  consists  in  money,  food,  clothing, 
free  medicines,  and  on  the  parish  doctor's  advice  good  nourish- 
ment, while   in  the  case  of   the  unemployed 

H  Id  G^  destitute,   tools,   sewing  machines,   mangles, 

or  railway  fare  to  places  where  work  is 
offered  are  provided.  In  many  instances,  the  assistance  is 
given  in  the  shape  of  a  loan,  and  thus  those  receiving  aid 
avoid  the  loss  of  civil  rights  which  is  incurred  by  persons 
entirely  dependent  on  public  support.  Sick  relief,  the 
admission  of  a  member  of  a  family  free  of  cost  into  an 
asylum  or  other  institution,  help  given  to  an  orphan  in 
learning  a  trade,  and  temporary  relief  in  general  are  not 
regarded  as  poor  law  aid  incurring  the  deprivation  of  civil 
rights. 

In  the  rural  unions  a  somewhat  similar  system  to  that  of  the 
cities  is  adopted.  The  effort  is  made  to  distribute  the  burden 
of  poverty  as  widely  as  possible  and  not  drive  the  poor  into 
the  towns  and  industrial  centres.  Each  municipality  or  union 
must,  whether  the  person  affected  is  domiciled  in  the  locality 
or  not,  provide  for  the  deserving  needy  who  apply. 


118  Germany  of  the  Germans 

In  addition  to  the  general  system  of  assisting  the  resident 

poor,  there  are  also  public  institutions  spread  all  over  the 

country  wherein  men   wandering  from  one 

Poor*"^      place    to   another   in   search   of   work   may 

obtain  food  and  lodging  on  condition  that 

they  fulfil  a  modest  task  before  continuing  on  their  way. 

These  may,  in  many  respects,  be  compared  to  casual  wards. 

The  men  have  to  be  provided  with  an  official  certificate,  in 

which  the  route  is  indicated  which  they  are  to  follow,  and  this 

must  be  stamped  at  each  halting  place.      When  the  men, 

who  are  usually  honest  workers  looking  for  employment,  are 

worn  out  with  fruitless  wandering,  they  may  apply  and  be 

admitted  to  one  of  the  work  colonies  in  the  country  districts. 

There  are  thirty-four  of  these  colonies,  capable  of  accom- 
modating 5,000  persons.     The  original  founder  of  the  colonies, 

^.r  1  ^  ,  .  which  are  mostly  private  enterprises  subsi- 
Work  Colonies.      j       -,    ,        ..       c/4-  j    ^.t,  •  •      ^^4.^ 

dised  by  the  State  and  the  municipahties, 

was  the  Emperor  Frederick,  when  he  was  Crown  Prince.  He 
gave  them  a  considerable  endowment,  which  has,  however, 
proved  insufficient  for  their  entire  maintenance.  Entry  is 
entirely  voluntary,  and  both  men  and  women  are  eligible. 
Every  applicant  must  produce  his  or  her  last  rent  receipt, 
a  police  registration  form,  a  reference  from  the  last  situation 
and  a  stamped  certificate  entitling  the  holder  to  wander  over 
the  country  in  search  of  work.  Over  200,000  of  the  poor 
unemployed  of  both  sexes  have  utilised  these  colonies,  but  it 
is  found  that  the  skilled  artisan  objects  to  give  up  his  trade 
and  settle  down  to  the  entirely  new  occupation  of  an  agricul- 
tural labourer,  although  opportunities  are  offered  him  to 
acquire  his  own  piece  of  land  from  his  own  savings  out  of  his 
earnings  in  the  colony.  In  some  instances,  these  colonies 
form  entirely  new  villages  and  every  effort  is  made  to  improve 
the  economic  condition  of  the  colonists  and  increase  their 
capacity  to  earn  money.  The  governors  are  really  foremen, 
who  teach  the  colonists  various  kinds  of  agricultural 
work. 


About  the  Poor  119 

The  average  duration  of  the  colonists'  stay  is  three  months. 
An  inmate  who  shirks  the  work  is  promptly  ejected  and  handed 
over  to  the  police  as  a  vagabond.  Anyone  who  is  weak  and 
unfit  for  hard  work  is  given  light  tasks  and  may  stay  as  long 
as  he  or  she  cares  to.  Before  the  institution  of  these  colonies 
the  houses  of  correction  for  tramps  and  vagrants  contained 
over  30,000  tramps.  Now  their  inmates  number  only  5,000 
in  the  whole  Empire,  of  whom  1,400  are  in  the  vicinity  of 
Berlin.  Some  of  the  houses  of  correction  have  consequently 
recently  been  closed. 

Night  shelters  are  also  provided  in  several  large  towns, 

many  of  them  being  the  result  of  the  efforts  of  private  societies. 

There  the  users  do  not  need  to  legitimise  them- 

Sh^u^*         selves.     Everyone  is  welcome  and  receives  a 

bath,  has  his  clothing  disinfected  and  may 

sleep  and  take  a  free  breakfast  before  leaving. 

In  the  municipal  night  shelters  in  BerUn,  where  4,000 
homeless  men  take  refuge  every  night  in  winter,  the  system 
has  recently  been  introduced  of  enforcing  inmates  to  do  two 
or  three  hours'  work  in  return  for  their  lodging  and  bowl  of 
soup  with  bread.  This  has  had  the  effect  of  driving  large 
numbers  of  confirmed  tramps  to  seek  other  refuges  either  in 
private  night  shelters  or  wherever  they  can  find  a  place  to 
creep  into.  Despite  this  the  Berlin  municipal  night  shelters, 
during  the  last  financial  year,  from  April  1, 1908,  to  March  31, 
1909,  admitted  866,300  persons,  or  an  average  right  through 
the  year  of  2,373  homeless  people  nightly. 

Orphans  and  foundlings  are  well  looked  after,  both  the  system 
of  institution  and  distribution  among  families  being  in  vogue. 
The  latter  is  more  general,  a  small  amount  being  paid  by  the 
authorities  for  their  keep.  The  persons  in  charge  are  kept 
under  control,  so  that  the  children  are  not  ill-treated  or 
exploited,  women  taking  a  great  part  in  the  control. 

The  group,  or  family,  system  has  also  been  adopted — a 
workman  and  his  wife  being  given  a  free  house  in  the  country 
on  condition  that  they  bring  up  from  6-12  orphans,  the  boys 


120  Germany  of  the  Germans 

to  learn  the  man's  trade,  the  girls  household  work.  A  small 
amount  per  head  is  also  paid.  This  has  the  advantage  of 
giving  the  children  the  benefit  of  family  life. 

Among  other  institutions  for  the  assistance  of  the  poor  are 
the  popular  kitchens,  where  food  is  provided  to  both  children 

and  grown-ups.     Where  the  latter  can  pay, 
Ktchens        ^^^^  ^^^  asked  for  a  small  sum.     Tramway 

workers,  scavengers  and  other  labourers  may 
often  be  seen  taking  a  meal  in  these  kitchens.  They  are 
under  the  control  of  private  societies,  in  the  same  way  as  the 
breakfasts  to  hungry  school  children,  but  the  municipalities 
subsidize  them. 

Poors'  doctors  are  appointed  in  most  districts.  They  are 
given  a  small  salary  by  the  municipality  on  condition  that 
they  set  aside  certain  hours  when  poor  sick  people  may  visit 
them.  They  have  also  to  visit  the  poor  in  their  houses  when 
necessary.  In  country  districts  several  parishes  join  together 
and  pay  for  one  doctor  between  them. 

Accident  stations  exist  in  every  town,  where  first  help  is 
rendered  to  victims  of  accidents,  who  are  then  taken  to 
hospital  or  sent  home. 

Dispensaries  for  the  poor  are  also  erected  at  the  municipal 
expense.      In  university  cities  these  serve  as  instructional 

centres  for  students. 
^^^^HosptSs^'"'^       ^^^   hospitals   are   all   controlled   by   the 

municipalities,  and  a  charge,  which  is 
graduated  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  individual 
patient,  is  made  for  attendance.  Poor  persons  unable  to  pay 
are  admitted  and  receive  medicine  and  surgical  attendance 
at  the  charge  of  the  municipality.  Any  person,  however,  is 
entitled  to  admittance  to  the  hospital  of  the  district  in  which 
he  resides  on  payment  of  a  minimum  sum  of  3s.  per  day, 
which  includes  medical  attention,  board  and  lodging. 
!  2286  people  on  an  average  are  in  the  Berlin  hospitals  at 
the  city's  expense.  The  number  of  beds  available  is  over 
3,000.    The  yearly  cost  to  the  city  is  £56,600. 


About  the  Poor  121 

Whereas  formerly  natives  of  one  German  State  when 
resident  in  another  were  considered  for  the  purposes  of  the 

Poor    Law    as    foreigners    and    immediately 
^Dorrddle°^      expelled  on  becoming  paupers,  the  law  now 

says  that  every  German,  from  whatever 
State  of  the  Empire  he  comes,  must  be  considered  a  native 
wherever  he  is  in  the  Empire  and  be  given  assistance, 
which  must  aften\^ards  be  recovered  from  the  authorities  of 
his  fixed  domicile. 

Germany  suffers  just  as  other  lands  do  in  having  most  of 
the  poor  in  great  cities  and  industrial  centres,  many  of  them 
drawn  thither  by  the  indiscriminate  charity  of  well-meaning 
but  foolish  people. 

Professional  paupers  certainly  exist,  but  they  are  restricted 
to  a  very  small  class  by  means   of  the  excellent  regulation 

compelling  private  charitable  institutions  to 
^pluperl!^      submit  all  applications  for  assistance  to  the 

central  body  having  charge  of  the  distribu- 
tion of  official  poor  rehef  in  each  district.  An  applicant  for 
assistance  who  endeavours  to  obtain  pecuniary  or  other  aid 
from  a  number  of  institutions  in  the  same  district  is  soon 
found  out  and,  as  his  or  her  name  is  also  communicated  to 
other  districts  by  the  authorities,  it  is  very  rare  that  he  or  she 
succeeds  in  hving  systematically  on  the  gifts  of  well-disposed 
people.  Of  course,  the  most  ingenious  of  these  pests  of 
modem  society  manage  by  confining  their  operations  to  private 
persons,  instead  of  applying  to  societies,  to  prey  for  a  length 
of  time  on  charity,  but  they  are  usually  found  out  in  the  long 
run. 

The  race  of  "  nevers,"  who  will  not  work  without  compul- 
sion, receives  little  encouragement.  Woe  be  to  them  if  they 
_  ,,     fall  into  the  hands  of  the  authorities,  for  they 

are  first  punished  by  a  term  of  imprisonment 
and  then  relegated  to  the  houses  of  correction,  or  work  houses, 
as  they  are  called  in  Germany,  and  detained  for  a  period  of 
two  to  five  years.     The  regime  in  these  "  work  houses  "  is 


122  Germany  of  the  Germans 

very  strict.  They  are  virtually  prisons,  as  the  inmates  may 
not  take  their  discharge.  Even  when  allowed  to  leave  after 
a  long  term  of  detention,  they  may  be  sent  back  to  their  place 
of  domicile  and  forbidden  to  leave  under  pain  of  relegation. 
Professional  beggars,  drunkards  and  prostitutes,  as  well  as 
persons  who,  owing  to  vice,  place  those  dependent  on  them 
in  such  a  position  as  to  become  a  burden  to  the  community, 
are  all  liable  to  this  form  of  detention.  In  some  cases,  the 
deserving  poor  and  homeless  are  admitted,  but  are  under  no 
compulsion  to  remain  if  they  receive  an  offer  of  employment. 
Foreigners  who  become  destitute  are  expelled  from  the 
country. 

It  must  be  confessed  that  the  accommodation  and  nourish- 
ment in  both  workers*  colonies  and  work  houses  is  very  poor, 
and  a  movement  is  proceeding  to  introduce  improvements  in 
these  respects. 

Complete  statistics  dealing  with  the  entire  outlay  for  poor 
relief  throughout  Germany  have  not  been  issued  for  twenty 
Th  c  t  years.  The  labour  of  compiling  the  returns 
from  the  great  rural  districts  is  enormous, 
and  the  central  department  is  overburdened  with  so  much 
administrative  work  that  officials  cannot  be  spared  for  the 
task.  A  fairly  accurate  official  estimate  of  the  outlay  on  the 
poor,  the  sick  and  the  orphans  in  urban  and  rural  districts 
containing  over  10,000  inhabitants  in  the  course  of  the  year 
1905  showed  that  ;f7,535,505  had  been  disbursed  for  these 
purposes.  This  total  leaves  entirely  out  of  account  the 
many  hundreds  of  districts  comprising  fewer  than  10,000 
inhabitants. 

Figures  for  1907  are,  however,  available  for  the  forty-one 

cities  containing  over   100,000  inhabitants.     The  following 

table  gives  a  clear  view  of  the  cost  involved. 

CY  ^^  some  cases,  remarks  are  made  in  the  last 

column  indicating  that  the  returns  do  not 

include  all  the  outlay  : 


About  the  Poor 


123 


City 

Population 
1907 

Expenditure 
on  Poor  in 

c 

Expenditure 
per  head 
of  Popula- 

tion 

In  Shillings 
s.    d. 

Berlin    .      .      . 

2.096.300 

674.419 

6    5i 

Excluding  hospitals 

Hamburg    .      , 

844.480 

317,846 

7    6i 

Miinchen 

552.000 

129.002 

4    8i 

Dresden       .      . 

531.000 

134.712 

5    1 

Leipzig  .      .      . 

518.700 

187.338 

7    2i 

Breslau  .      .      . 

486,000 

84.788 

3    6 

Excluding  cost  of 
medicine 

Koln       .      .      . 

450,890 

72.573 

3    2i 

Excluding  hospitals 

Frankfurt  a.  M. 

350,300 

115.789 

6    7i 

Niimberg    .      . 

307,700 

53,307 

3    5i 

Orphan  asylums 

AYolnrlArl 

Chemnitz     . 

263.000 

41.693 

3    2 

CA.dUUCvl 

Dusseldorf  .      . 

262,300 

74.789 

5    8i 

Stuttgart     .      . 

261,060 

74,133 

5    8i 

Hanover 

257,750 

55,738 

4    4 

Charlottenburg 

257,300 

75,508 

5    lOi 

Magdeburg 

245,340 

55.902 

4    7 

Excluding  hospitals 

Essen  a.  Ruhr  . 

244.680 

44,982 

3    8i 

Stettin   .      .      . 

232,830 

41.831 

3    7i 

f>                t» 

Konigsberg 

230,610 

53.271 

4    7i 

Bremen 

223,520 

62.534 

5    7i 

Duisburg     . 

207,460 

35,494 

3    5 

Dortmund  . 

192,580 

32,837 

3    5 

Rixdorf        .      . 

186.960 

14,509 

2    1 

Halle      .      .      . 

175,870 

36,383 

4    If 

Kiel        .      .      . 

173,460 

53,886 

6    2i 

Mannheim  . 

173,270 

45,975 

5    4 

Strassburg  . 

172,880 

26,958 

3    U 

Incomplete 

Altona  .      .      . 

171.890 

38.316 

4    8 

Elberfeld     .      . 

166.520 

40.123 

4    9f 

Danzig  . 

165.160 

59,959 

7    3i 

Barmen 

159,100 

26,873 

3    4f 

Schoneberg 

155,970 

18,779 

2    5 

Gelsenkirchen  . 

154,430 

16,697 

2    2 

Aachen         .      . 

152,210 

45,120 

5    lU 

Cassel     .      .      . 

148,740 

26,767 

2    11 

Posen     .      .      . 

146.020 

32,563 

4    5i 

Braunschweig  . 

138,620 

25,754 

3    8f 

Bochum       .      . 

127,900 

19,363 

3    0 

Karlsruhe    . 

122.110 

15,558 

2    6t 

Krefeld  .      .      . 

114,040 

24.077 

4    2f 

Wiesbaden  . 

104,510 

19,221 

3    8 

Erfurt    .      .      . 

102.840 

15,569 

3    0 

Hospital  excluded 

124  Germany  of  the  Germans 

In  the  city  of  Berlin  in  January,   1909,  34,219  persons 
received  poor  relief.     Besides  these,  grants  were  made  to 
.    _   J.  widowed  mothers  in  12,414  cases  for  the  sup- 

port of  their  children.  9,445  other  persons 
received  special  temporary  aid.  2,179  persons  were  arrested 
for  begging.  115, 199  persons  sought  shelter  in  public  shelters, 
while  private  shelters  received  23,862.  Of  all  these  homeless 
only  853  were  handed  over  to  the  police  as  confirmed  vagrants, 
as  they  had  made  use  of  the  shelters  more  than  from  3-5 
nights,  which  is  the  maximum  permitted. 

Almshouses  for  the  old  people  unable  to  care  for  themselves 
are  provided  in  the  suburbs,  and  they  live  there  instead  of 
taking  outdoor  relief.  The  almshouse  connected  with  the 
Berlin  municipality  is  situated  at  Buch,  a  delightfully  healthy 
suburb.  There  accommodation  is  provided  for  1,500  old 
people  of  both  sexes.  Near  by  are  situated  other  municipal 
institutions,  including  an  asylum  for  the  insane  with  1,800 
beds,  and  a  sanatorium  for  consumptives  with  150  beds. 

The  principles  of  the  operation  of  the  German  poor  law 
may  be  summed  up  as  follows  : 

1.  Very  poor  districts  are  carefully  watched 
PrincipkT       ^^^  ^^^  State  comes  to  their  assistance  in 
case  of  necessity. 

2.  Poor  law  officials,  most  of  whom  are  voluntary,  are, 
with  the  resources  placed  at  their  disposal,  kept  under  close 
control. 

3.  The  arrangement  by  law  of  the  right  to  settle  in  a 
district,  thus  preventing  the  flow  of  the  poor  towards  any 
one  point. 

4.  Official  superintendence  of  private  charities. 

5.  Organisation  of  a  system  of  loan  institutions,  which,  by 
advancing  monetary  assistance  to  those  struggling  against 
their  downfall,  help  the  poor  to  re-establish  themselves  in 
independent  positions  and  at  the  same  time  protect  them 
against  usurers. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

A   GENERATION   AHEAD   IN   INSURANCE 

If  the  system  of  compulsory  insurance  under  State  control 
by  working  men  to  provide  against  sickness,  accident,  infirm- 
ity and  old  age  is  the  correct  method,  then 
tt?e°^Worid       Germany  is  a  quarter  of  a  century  in  advance 
of    all    other  nations  in  the   world   in  this 
respect. 

Until  now  the  system  adopted,  and  being  rapidly  extended 
to  include  other  classes  of  the  population,  has  proved  of 
enormous  benefit  in  doing  away  with  the  hopeless  poverty 
that  at  one  time  existed  as  widely  in  Germany  as  in  other 
countries. 

The   necessity   for   a   system   of   compulsory   workmen's 
insurance,  to  which  employers  also  are  forced  to  contribute, 
arose  with  the  disappearance  of  the  old  class 
N  cessar         °^  independent  workmen  through  the  intro- 
duction of  the  factory  system  controlled  by 
capitalists.     Formerly   every   skilled    journeyman    had    the 
prospect  of  becoming  a  master  and  undertaking  work  on  his 
own  account.     Since  the  invention  of  machinery  these  condi- 
tions have  changed  to  such  an  extent  that  only  an  infinites- 
imal proportion  of  workers  can  possibly,  owing  to  lack  of 
capital,  ever  become  anything  beyond  employees  throughout 
their  lives. 

It  has  been  found  that  when  a  worker  becomes  incapacitated 
for  further  labour,  he  is  practically  thrown  on  his  own  resources, 
or  on  to  public  charity,  as  the  factories  in  very  few  cases  make 
voluntary  provision  for  their  decayed  workmen,  while  the 
workmen  themselves  are  in  most  cases  either  unable  to  say^ 

125 


126  Germany  of  the  Germans 

sufficient  to  provide  for  their  needs  during  sickness  and 
infirmity,  or  else  through  thrifUessness  neglect  to  do  so. 

The   workmen   themselves  recognised   their  shortcomings 

in  this  regard,  and  welcomed  the  proposal  to  introduce  the 

scheme  of  sick  insurance,  which  has  proved 

W*rT^  ^^^^  ^  success  in  Germany  that  many  other 

countries  are  copying  it. 

The  infirmity  and  old-age  insurance  met  with  considerable 
disapproval  at  first,  owing  to  the  fact  that  workers,  who  are 
compelled  to  pay  subscriptions  from  the  age  of  sixteen, 
regarded  it  as  very  unlikely  that  they  would  ever  reach  the 
age  of  seventy,  when  the  old-age  pension  is  given  them. 
However,  since  it  has  been  found  that  the  old-age  clause 
is  merely  a  set  term  when  every  insured  person  may  uncon- 
ditionally claim  a  pension,  whether  disabled  or  not,  while 
the  vast  majority,  on  account  of  infirmity,  enter  into  the 
enjoyment  of  the  pension  at  a  much  earlier  age,  the  prejudice 
has  died  out. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  number  of  infirmity  pensioners 

(that  is,  pensioners  who  are  granted  pensions  before  the  age 

limit  of  seventy  is  attained)  from  January  1st, 

pl^iSeTs.  ^^^'  ^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^'  ^^^'  reached  1,659,234, 
of  whom  871,303  are  still  drawing  their 
pensions. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  number  of  purely  old-age  pensions 
granted  in  the  same  period  was  only  473,370,  of  which  107,064 
are  still  in  force. 

There  is  another  clause  of  the  law  under  which  temporary 
infirmity  pensions  are  granted.  This  has  only  been  in  force 
since  January  1st,  1900,  but  from  that  date  until  March  31st, 
1909,  no  fewer  than  93,382  people  have  benefited  by  it,  of 
whom  18,763  are  still  receiving  their  pensions. 

Grants  were  also  made  in  1,848,878  cases  to  women  who 
had  paid  their  dues  regularly  up  till  their  marriage,  and 
409,789  grants  to  widows  and  children  of  insured  men  deceased 
before  they  had  claimed  a  pension. 


A  Generation  Ahead  in  Insurance        127 

Over  £66,000,000  has  been  distributed  in  infirmity  and  old- 
age  pensions  since  1891.  Of  this  amount  £42,000,000  has 
been  collected  in  weekly  subscriptions  from 

Evolved"'  employers  and  employed,  and  £24,000,000 
granted  from  Imperial  funds. 

At  the  last  return  the  number  of  persons  insured  under  the 
infirmity  and  old-age  pension  law  was  given  in  round  figures 
at  14,400,000,  and  the  total  sum  in  the  hands  of  the 
administration  was  £70,205,000. 

This  enormous  amount  has  been  raised  by  means  of  very 
small  subscriptions,  the  insurable  persons  being  divided  into 
five  classes :  (1)  those  earning  wages  up  to  £17  10s.  yearly ; 
(2)  from  £17  10s.  to  £27  10s.  ;  (3)  from  £27  10s.  to  £42  10s.  ; 
(4)  from  £42  10s.  to  £57  10s.  ;  and  (5)  those  earning  more  than 
£57  10s.  annually.  The  weekly  subscription  hitherto  payable 
by  these  classes  respectively  has  amounted  to  Ifd.,  2Jd.,  3d., 
SJd.,  and  4Jd.,  of  which  the  worker  pays  half  and  the  employer 
half.  The  employer  is  responsible  for  the  payments  and 
usually  deducts  the  subscription  from  his  employee's  wages. 

Workmen  may  pay  into  a  higher  class  and  thus  have  the 
right  to  a  better  pension.  This  causes  some  slight  difficulty, 
owing  to  the  employer  having  to  pay  half  of  the  subscription  ; 
but  he  must  not  refuse  to  do  so,  therefore  the  law  permits  him 
to  stop  the  increased  amount  out  of  the  insured  person's  wages. 

On  April  1st,  1910,  an  extension  of  the  infirmity  and  old- 
age  insurance  law  is,  it  is  hoped,  to  go  into  effect,  providing 
for  widows  and  children  of  deceased  pen- 
the"  Law  sioners,  who  have  hitherto  been  deprived  of 
support  on  the  pensioner's  death.  This  is  to  be 
effected  by  increasing  the  weekly  subscriptions  of  the  five 
classes  to  2d.,  3d.,  3}d.,  4Jd.,  and  5}d.  respectively. 

The  widow  of  a  pensioner  will  thereafter  receive  a  pension 
equal  to  three-tenths  of  that  of  her  late  husband,  with  allow- 
ances for  children  and  an  annual  addition  from  State  funds 
amounting  to  £2  10s.  for  the  widow  and  £1  5s.  for  each  child. 

The  ininimum  infirmity  pension,  to  be  entitled  to  which  at 


128  Germany  of  the  Germans 

any  age  an  insured  person  must  have  paid  subscriptions  for 
at  least  200  weeks,  amounts,  according  to  the  class,  to  ;f3 
annually  in  Class  I ;  £3  10s.  in  Class  II ;  £4  in  Class  III ; 
£4  10s.  in  Class  IV  ;  £5  in  Class  V.  To  each  of  these  pensions 
is  added  annually  £2  10s.,  which  comes  from  the  Imperial 
funds,  so  that  the  minimum  of  Class  I  reaches  £5  10s. ;  Class  II, 
£6 ;  Class  III,  £6  10s.  ;  Class  IV,  £7 ;  and  Class  V,  £1  10s. 
Additions  are,  however,  made,  which  increase  in  amount 
according  to  the  number  of  weeks  the  insured  person  has 
paid  his  subscriptions.  The  average  pension  works  out  at 
£8  Is.  8d.  annually.  It  can,  however,  attain  to  £22  10s.  in  the 
case  of  a  person  who  has  paid  in  to  Class  V  for  fifty  years. 

Persons  who  are  not  compelled  by  law  to  insure  themselves 
against  infirmity  and  old  age  may  voluntarily  pay  subscrip- 
tions to  whichever  class  they  choose,   but 

^  Clause^^^     these  persons  must  have  paid  in  for  at  least 
500  weeks  before  becoming  entitled  to  claim 
an  infirmity  pension. 

The  amounts  of  the  infirmity  pensions  obtainable  by 
pensioners,  their  widows  and  orphans,  of  all  classes  under  the 
new  regulations  about  to  go  into  force  are  set  out  clearly  in 
the  table  on  page  129. 

The  authorities  may  decline  to  grant  an  infirmity  pension 
to  a  claimant  who,  in  their  opinion,  supported  by  that  of 

_  medical  experts,  has  himself  brought  about 

the  infirmity.     In  such  a  case,  part  or  whole 
of  the  pension  may  be  awarded  to  the  man's  family. 

In  instances  in  which  the  medical  experts  are  of  opinion 
that  a  claimant,  by  means  of  proper  treatment,  can  be  pre- 
vented from  becoming  a  permanent  invalid,  power  is  given 
them  to  send  him  to  an  invalids'  home,  where  every  effort 
to  effect  a  cure  is  made.  Many  absolutely  infirm  pensioners 
who  have  no  one  to  care  for  them  are  also  sent  into  these 
institutions  instead  of  receiving  the  money.  There  are  seven- 
teen of  these  homes  for  chronic  invalids  in  existence,  containing 
nearly  3,000  beds,  and  more  are  being  constructed.    The 


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In  Wages  Class  V 

98.40  49,20  78.00  107.40 
116.40  58,20  88,80  119,40 
134,40  67.20  99,00  131.40 
152,40  76,20  109,80  143,40 
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80,40    40.20    67.80 
89,40    45,00    73.20 
98.40    49.20    78.00 
107.40    54.00    83,40 
116.40    58,20    88.80 

In  Wages  Class  III 
86.40    43.20    71.40 
98,40    49,20    78,00 
110,40    55.20    85.20 
122.40    61.20    92,40 
134.40    67.20    99.00 

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72,60    36,60 
77.40    39.00 
81.60    40.80 
86,40    43,20 
90.60    45,60 

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92,40    46.20 
107.40    54.00 
122.40    61.20 
137.40    69,00 
152.40    76.20 

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9— (2931) 


130  Germany  of  the  Germans 

administrative  authorities  also  subsidise  largely  many  con- 
valescent homes  and  consumption  hospitals  and  it  is  calculated 
that  a  very  considerable  number  of  infirmity  pensions  are 
saved  in  consequence  of  the  cures  thus  effected. 

Various  additions  have  recently  been  made  to  the  law, 
whereby  the  privileges  of  voluntary  State  insurance  are 
extended  to  persons  earning  higher  incomes  than  those  in  the 
compulsory  schedule. 

The    old-age    pensions,    as    distinguished    from    infirmity 

pensions,  need  very  little  description.     The  same  subscription 

includes  both  branches.  Every  insured  person 

Old-Age        attaining  the  age  of  seventy,  even  though  able 

to  work,  is  granted  the  pension  to  which  his 

class  entitles  him.     The  fixed  annual  sums  accorded  to  the 

various  classes  from  the  pension  funds  are  :    Class  I,  £3 ; 

Class  II,  ;f4  10s.  ;    Class  III,  £6 ;    Class  IV,  £]  10s.  ;    and 

Class  V,  £Q.     To  each  of  these  sums  is  added  {2  10s.  from 

Imperial  funds,  bringing  the  totals  up  to  IS  10s.,  £1,  £S  10s., 

;fl0,  and  £11  10s.  respectively. 

The  only  condition  is  that  an  insured  person  must  have 
paid  in  for  1,200  weeks,  but  if  he  has  joined  after  the  age  of 
forty  then  for  every  year  he  was  older  than  forty  when  he 
joined  forty  weeks  are  deducted,  so  that  a  man  who  joins  at 
fifty  would  only  need  to  have  paid  in  1,200  less  400  weeks, 
that  is,  800  weeks,  and  a  man  joining  at  sixty  would  only  need 
to  pay  in  1,200  less  800  weeks,  that  is,  400  weeks. 

Should  an  insured  man  die  before  receiving  a  pension,  his 
widow  and  children  under  fifteen  years  of  age  are  entitled  to 
receive  from  the  funds  in  a  lump  sum  the  half  of  the  amount 
that  has  been  paid  in. 

Compulsory  sick  insurance  is  imposed  (1)  on  all  persons 

working  for  wages  on  a  weekly  engagement,  in  shops,  or  as 

artisans  or  in  any  trade  ;    (2)  in  mines,  in 

Compulsory     factories,  steel  and  ironworks,  on  railways, 
Sick  Insurance.  .      ,      i  .        i  •  j  j    • 

canals  or  m  harbours,  m  shipyards  and  m 

buildings  ;  (3)  in  the  offices  of  barristers,  solicitors  and  bailiffs, 


A  Generation  Ahead  in  Insurance        131 

in  benefit  societies,  co-operative  societies  and  insurance 
companies ;  (4)  in  works  where  steam  or  other  power  is 
constantly  in  use  ;  (5)  in  the  postal  and  telegraph  services, 
and  in  the  arsenals  of  the  Army  and  Navy. 

Those  persons  coming  under  the  third  head,  as  well  as 
foremen,  managers  and  technicians,  are  only  liable  when 
their  wage  does  not  exceed  6s.  8d.  per  day  or  £100  a  year. 
Chemists'  assistants  and  apprentices  are  not  liable,  nor  are 
ships'  crews,  for  whom  the  owners  are  obhged  to  provide. 

Local  authorities  may  extend  the  compulsion  also  to  persons 
of  all  those  categories  whose  engagement  is  for  less  than 
a  week,  and  also  to  municipal  employees,  and  to  the  relatives 
of  an  independent  workman,  to  home  workers,  and  to 
agricultural  and  forest  labourers  and  overseers. 

New    regulations    have    only    recently   come    into    force, 

extending  the  compulsory  sickness  insurance  unconditionally 

to  include  all  the  following  classes  :    agricul- 

A  Wide        tural  workers  and  foresters,  artisans,  casual 
Kange.  ... 

labourers,  apprentices,  domestics,  managers, 

foremen,    technical    assistants,    shop    assistants,    chemists' 

assistants,    theatrical    employees,    private    teachers,    home 

workers,  sailors,  canal  boatmen. 

Assurances  of  workers  against  sickness  in  1908  numbered 
12,942,000,  or  81  per  cent,  of  the  working  men  of  the  Empire 
earning  up  to  ;£100  a  year.  The  fees  paid  in  by  workers  and 
employers,  who  pay  respectively  two-thirds  and  one- third, 
amounted  to  nearly  £15,600,000,  or  about  £1  4s.  per  head. 
No  less  than  £13,500,000  was  paid  out  in  sick  benefit  or  for 
hospital  treatment.  The  number  who  declared  on  the  funds 
reached  4,956,388,  who  were  sick  altogether  97,148,780  days. 
The  cost  of  administration  was  £834,645. 

The  extension  to  other  classes  of  workers  is  heartily 
welcomed  by  the  nation  in  general.  It  is  calculated  that  the 
new  ordinance  will  increase  the  number  of  those  insured 
against  sickness  by  over  5,000,000  in  the  course  of  1910, 
making  the  total  in  round  figures  18,000,000. 


132  Germany  of  the  Germans 

A  change  has  also  been  introduced  in  the  payments,  whereby 
employers  and  employed  are  to  pay  equal  amounts. 

There  are  more  than  23,000  compulsory  sick  funds  in  the 
Empire.    They  are  not  all  of  the  same  kind  and  the  subscrip- 
tions and  benefits  vary  considerably.     Some 
Paymente  and    Qf  ^^^  funds  are  organised  by  the  municipal- 
Unequal,        ities,    others    by   rural    district    boards,    by 
factories,   in   works,   by  trade-guilds   or   by 
voluntary  unions  of  private  persons.     These  latter  unions  are 
composed  for  the  most  part  of  people  who  are  not  compelled 
by  the  law  to  insure,  but  they  are  recognised  by  the  Imperial 
authorities   as  fulfilling  the   conditions  of  the   compulsory 
insurance  law,  and  workmen  coming  under  the  legal  hability 
are  permitted  to  join  them.     The  employer  does  not  pay  any 
part  of  the  subscription  in  this  case  and  some  instances  have 
been  brought  to  light  when  employers  have  taken  advantage 
of  the  existence  of  these  societies  to  employ  only  workmen 
who  belong  to  them,  so  that  in  this  way  the  employers  have 
escaped  payment  of  their  part  of  the  cost. 

The  conditions  of  entry  into  the  varied  kinds  of  sick  fund 

are  not  always  alike.     In  some  instances  an  entrance  fee 

amounting  to  six  times  the  weekly  subscrip- 

Conditions  of    ^^^^    -^    jj^posed    on   new    members,  unless 

Memoersnip.  \  i         r       ,       •  , 

transferred  from  another  fund ;   m  others  a 

probation  is  required  before  a  new  member  is  entitled  to  draw 
sick  pay  ;  while  there  are  also  some  societies  which  demand 
a  medical  certificate  proving  that  the  candidate  is  in  good 
health. 

The  cost  of  management,  too,  is  very  unequal,  as  some  of 
the  funds  comprise  only  as  few  as  fifty  members,  while  others 
have  over  100,000.  In  the  new  regulations  an  effort  has 
been  made  to  equalise  conditions  by  enforcing  a  rule  that 
no  fund  may  be  started  with  less  than  500  members. 

The  subscription  to  a  municipal  or  rural  district  sick  fund 
(whose  members  are  mostly  workers  employed  in  shops  or 
factories  where  less  than  five  hands  are  engaged)  is  usually 


A  Generation  Ahead  in  Insurance       133 

reckoned  at  the  rate  of  1 J  to  2  per  cent,  of  the  ordinary  work- 
man's wage  of  the  district.  Since  January  1st,  1910,  workman 
and  employer  each  pays  half  of  the  subscription,  viz.,  from 
2Jd.  to  3d.  each  per  week,  where  the  man's  wage  is  24s. 
weekly,  and  so  on  in  proportion. 

The  other  funds  usually  charge  higher  subscriptions,  ranging 

from  2  per  cent,  to  as  much  as  4  per  cent,  of  the  ordinary 

workman's  wage  of  the  district.     Thus,  at  the 

Regulations  ^^wer  rate  a  workman  earning  24s.  weekly 
pays  3d.  and  his  employer  3d.  weekly,  while 
at  the  higher  rate  they  each  pay  6d.  weekly.  In  aU  cases 
the  employer  is  responsible  for  seeing  that  his  workmen  pay 
their  dues,  and  usually  he  deducts  the  sum  weekly  from  their 
wages  and  gums  the  requisite  stamps  on  the  membership  card. 
The  stamps  are  issued  by  the  postal  and  insurance  authorities. 

Should  the  subscriptions,  reckoned  at  4  per  cent,  of  the 
ordinary  workman's  wages,  not  be  sufficient  for  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  fund,  a  levy  may  be  made  on  the  employers  of 
the  district,  but  nothing  further  may  be  demanded  of  the 
workmen. 

The  assistance  to  which  an  insured  person  is  entitled  during 

sickness  consists  of  weekly  monetary  payments  for  six  months, 

amounting  to  half  of  the  usual  workman's  pay 

Sick  Pay  ^^  *^^  district,  when  this  does  not  exceed  4s. 
per  day.  Medical  attendance  is  provided,  also 
free  medicines,  eye-glasses,  trusses  and  other  simple  apparatus. 
An  insured  person  may  also  be  sent  to  the  hospital  by  the 
fund,  which  pays  the  necessary  cost  of  attendance  there,  but 
deducts  part  of  it  from  the  sum  due  to  the  insured  man. 
The  remainder  of  the  money  is  handed  to  his  family. 

Working  women  who  are  insured  are  entitled  to  sick  pay 
for  six  to  eight  weeks  during  childbed,  if  they  have  belonged 
to  the  fund  for  the  twelve  months  immediately  preceding. 
This,  however,  does  not  apply  in  the  case  of  municipal  or  rural 
district  funds. 

Funeral  money  is  also  paid  on  ^  member's  death.    TUis 


134  Germany  of  the  Germans 

amounts  to  twenty  days'  full  working  pay  at  the  ruling  rate 
of  the  district,  but  is  not  paid  by  municipal  funds. 

In  Karlsruhe  since  July  1st,  1909,  there  exists  a  motherhood 
insurance  office  for  the  benefit  of  working  men's  wives  who 
do  not  go  out  to  work  and  are  not  compelled  to  insure.  The 
women  pay  6d.  monthly  and  are  entitled  to  receive  after 
a  minimum  of  a  year's  membership  a  sum  of  20s.  to  40s. 
at  the  period  of  their  confinement.  The  amount  is  regulated 
according  to  length  of  membership.  As  the  subscriptions 
are  estimated  not  to  be  high  enough  to  cover  the  outlay,  the 
municipal  authorities  give  a  subsidy. 

The  most  extensive  form  of  insurance  is  that  against  work- 
men's accidents.  For  this  the  employers  bear  the  entire  cost. 
They  are  formed  into  trade  associations 
Accident  ^^^  ^j^-g  p^j-pose  and  each  trade  provides  for 
its  own  casualties. 

Workers  to  the  number  of  20,207,438  were  insured  against 
accidents  at  the  end  of  1908.  Of  these  in  the  course  of  the 
year  905,473  received  compensation  for  injuries,  while  80,508 
widows,  103,473  children  and  grandchildren,  and  4,095  other 
dependent  relatives  of  men  killed  received  compensation. 
14,772  wives,  32,683  children  and  grandchildren,  and  260 
dependent  relatives  of  the  assured  received  grants  while  their 
breadwinners  were  in  hospital. 

The  method  of  compensation  is  laid  down  very  clearly. 

A  workman  or  woman  who  has  suffered  from  an  accident 

first  goes  on  to  the  ordinary  sick  fund  for 

Method  of      twenty-six  weeks,   and  receives  during  this 

period  sick  pay  amounting  to  two-thirds  of 

the  wages,  besides  attendance.     Thereafter,  two-thirds  of  the 

regular  wages  he  or  she  has  been  receiving  must   be  paid 

by   the   employer  during  total  disablement,   or  in  case   of 

partial    disablement    a    proportion    of    the    regular    wages 

sufficient  to  make  up  for  the  amount  the  person  is  unable 

to  earn. 

In  ca§e  of  death  through  accident  of  an  insured  prson  the 


-        OF    THE  \ 

UNIVERSITY    / 

OF 


A  Generation  Ahead  in  Insurance        135 

employer  is  compelled  to  defray  all  costs  of  burial  and  to  pay 
a  pension  to  his  dependents. 

The  Government  has  recently  introduced  new  regulations 
which  will  tend  to  take  a  considerable  amount  of  the  work 
of  arbitration  in  disputes  off  the  central  office  in  Berlin. 
About  800  district  insurance  offices  are  to  be  established,  over 
which  higher  offices,  numbering  125,  will  be  formed  to  act 
as  appeal  courts,  all  to  be  superintended  by  the  chief  office. 
In  all  of  these  assessors  representing  in  equal  proportions 
employers  and  employed  are  to  be  engaged  in  the  settlement 
of  disputes. 

That  the  State  should  control  every  branch  of  insurance 

is  argued  on  many  sides.     It  is  pointed  out  that  the  taxes 

paid  for  Army  and  Navy,  for  the  administra- 

Compulsory  Fire  ^ion  of  justice,  for  police,  for  sanitation,  etc., 

Insurance  also  n   j-       ^  •  •  \Tru  j. 

Suggested.        ^^^  ^^  direct  msurance  premmms.     Why  not 

then  place  fire  insurance  also  in  the  hands  of 
the  State  ?  The  poor  people  are  often  the  greatest  sufferers 
by  fire,  for  in  many  instances  a  fire  which  starts  in  an  insured 
factory  or  works  spreads  to  the  surrounding  uninsured  poor 
people's  dwellings,  and  where  are  they  to  look  for  reimburse- 
ment of  the  damage  ?  They  must  generally  bear  the  whole 
brunt  unless  a  charitable  subscription  is  started  for  their 
benefit.  It  is  pointed  out  that  the  insurance  could  be  carried 
out  so  much  cheaper  by  the  State  than  by  private  competitive 
companies,  as  the  State  would  not  need  to  spend  50  percent., 
or  at  any  rate  the  large  sum  now  spent,  on  advertising,  agents, 
dupHcate  officials  and  printing,  and  other  things  that  run 
away  with  much  of  the  money  paid  by  the  insured 
for  premiums. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  UNEMPLOYED 

Hitherto  fear  of  the  stupendousness  of  the  task  has  kept  the 
Imperial  authorities  from  drawing  up  a  scheme  of  insurance 
against  unemployment,  although  it  is  gener- 
^  ^T^k^'''^    ^^y  recognised  that  the  subject  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  and  must  eventually  be 
dealt  with  as  a  corollary  to  infirmity,  old  age,  accident  and 
sickness  insurance.     A  move  in  this  direction  has  been  under 
contemplation  for  some  time,  as  may  be  gathered  from  the 
fact  that  in  the  great  towns  the  authorities  undertake  from 
time  to  time  a  census  of  the  unemployed,  their  trades,  etc. 
In  this  way  an  idea  of  the  average  number  unemployed  is 
being  attained,  which  is  necessary  if  any  scheme  of  insurance 
against  unemployment  is  to  be  started  with  hope  of  success. 
Periods  when  the  workers  suffer  from  unemployment  are 
just  as  unavoidable  as  they  are  disagreeable  under  the  preva- 
lent conditions  in  the  great  industrial  centres 

prosperity  people  are  attracted  to  these 
centres  by  the  high  wages  offered  and  then,  when  a  time  of 
trade  depression  sets  in,  they  are  usually  unable,  owing  to 
lack  of  funds,  to  leave  and  proceed  elsewhere. 

The  danger  of  repeated  periods  of  slackness  and  unemploy- 
ment increases  with  the  commercial  growth  of  a  nation.  The 
people  devote  themselves  more  and  more  to  industries  and 
neglect  agriculture,  with  the  result  that,  when  a  period  of 
industrial  depression  arrives,  many  people  who  have  been 
thriftless  suffer,  not  only  because  of  their  want  of  means,  but 
because  of  their  inability  to  turn  to  other  kinds  of  labour. 
Under  present  conditions,  loss  of  employment  may  occur  to 
anybody,  although  as  a  matter  of  fact  some  workers  rarely 
suffer  from  such  an  experience. 

136 


The  Problem  of  the  Unemployed        137 

In  most  cases  the  unskilled  labourers  are  the  first  to  suffer 

from  depression  in  trade.     Even  under  the  best  of  conditions 

they  do  not  earn  sufficient  to  save  enough  to 

Suff  ?Mo  t  carry  them  on  until  another  spell  of  prosperity 
sets  in.  The  skiUed  worker,  on  the  other 
hand,  gains  enough  to  permit  him  to  provide  for  a  rainy  day, 
although  he  does  not  always  do  so. 

The  workers  who  would  obtain  most  benefit  from  insurance 
are  thus  the  casual  labourers,  as  owing  to  the  uncertain 
and  disconnected  nature  of  their  work  their  contributions 
would  be  very  irregular  and  they  would  make  most  calls  on 
the  benefits.  It  is,  however,  principally  this  class  which 
makes  caUs  on  the  poor  rates  under  present  conditions,  so 
that  if  they  can  only  be  compelled  to  contribute  to  an  insurance 
fund  when  they  are  in  work,  which  they  now  do  not  do,  some 
good  wiU  have  been  effected. 

Although  trades  unions  have  effected  much  in  this  direction, 
the  time  has  come,  in  the  opinion  of  many  leading  states- 
men, when  the  question  of  insurance  against 
^St^  ^n ^^  unemployment  must  be  taken  up  by  the  State. 
The  opinions  as  to  the  system  to  be  adopted 
differ  widely.  In  the  first  place,  employers  and  employed 
cannot  agree  as  to  their  respective  participation  in  the  pro- 
vision of  the  funds.  Then  the  representatives  of  town  and 
rural  districts  are  divided  as  to  the  method  to  be  adopted. 
Finally,  the  organised  and  unorganised  workmen  are  at  issue, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  former  are  more  or  less  provided 
for  by  their  unions,  while  the  latter  are  in  most  cases  unpro- 
tected and  at  the  same  time  run  more  risk  of  being  thrown 
out  of  employment,  because  they  generally  follow  unskilled 
occupations  in  which  work  is  often  of  a  temporary  nature. 

Governments  and  other  public  authorities  recognise 
the  great  danger  of  recurring  periods  of  depression,  and 
are  in  many  cases  in  favour  of  the  principle  of  intro- 
ducing a  compulsory  system  of  insurance  against  their 
consequences. 


138  Germany  of  the  Germans 

That  unemployed  workers,  who  have  reached  the  end  of 
their  resources,   should  be  compelled  to  become   paupers, 
relying   on    public   charity,   is   admitted   to 
^"^^Niedir^"*  be  wrong.     Why  not  then,  it  is  argued,  en- 
courage the  honest  worker  to  make  provision 
against  such  a  possibihty  by  introducing  a  system  of  com- 
pulsory thrift,  so  as  to  enable  him  to  have  in  his  time  of  need 
a  source  of  support  to  which  he  can  go  without  shame,  as  he 
himself  has  contributed  to  its  existence. 

It  would  seem  easy,  with  all  the  experience  gained  from 
the  success  of  the  sickness,  old-age,  accident  and  infirmity 
insurance  systems,  to  work  out  a  scheme  to  include  the 
unemployed. 

There  is,  however,  one  very  serious  difficulty  to  be  over- 
come— namely,  the  question  of  deciding  whether  a  man  is 
out  of  work  because  he  is  unwilling  to  work 
Diffi  ulT^  or  unable  to  find  employment.  Can  a  man 
be  said  to  be  unwilling  to  work  because  he 
refuses  work  outside  of  his  own  trade,  or  because  he  is  un 
willing  to  remove  to  another  district  where  work  is  offered 
him  ?  How  can  proof  be  obtained  that  a  man  is  unemployed 
by  his  own  fault,  when,  perhaps,  he  is  really  incapable  of 
doing  the  work  of  a  trade  to  which  he  has  served  a  long 
apprenticeship  ?  Is  a  man  insured  against  unemployment 
to  be  given  out-of-work  pay  if  he  loses  his  berth  through 
drunkenness  ?  In  these  cases,  should  it  be  decided  to  refuse 
him  out-of-work  pay,  is  he  to  be  allowed  to  go  on  to  the  poor 
rates  and  thus  entirely  depend  upon  public  support  ?  In 
that  event  it  seems  as  though  the  ne'er-do-well  is  being  better 
treated  than  the  honest  man. 

The  fear  that  insurance  would  have  a  demorahsing  effect 

on  the  casual  labouring  class  may  be  dismissed  as  in  most 

cases  groundless  ;  but  the  difficulty  of  control 

^^Fears^^*      still  remains.     Any  system  must  bring  with 

it  a  certain  compulsion  to  accept  work  when 

offered.     The    question    of    compelling    the    employers    to 


The  Problem  of  the  Unemployed        139 

contribute  is  much  discussed,  but  it  is  generally  admitted 
that  they  should  bear  part  of  the  cost,  as  they  derive 
benefit  from  an  overplus  of  labour  which  they  can  utilise 
when  their  factories  are  busy  and  dispense  with  when 
they  are  slack. 

The  question  arises  :    "  What  can  be  done  to  help  these 

unskilled  labourers  and  thriftless  artisans  to  tide  over  their 

time    of    distress     without    making    them 

What  Can         r>annprci  ?  " 
be  Done  ?       Paupers  ." 

Perhaps  the  results  attained  in  some  of  those 
cities  in  Germany  where  schemes  of  various  kinds  of  im- 
employment  insurance  have  been  and  are  being  tried  will 
throw  some  hght  on  the  subject. 

For  instance,  in  Strassburg,  all  the  twenty-nine  trades 
unions  existing  in  the  town  have  joined  the  out-of-work 
scheme  inaugurated  by  the  municipality.  Their  total  member- 
ship consists  of  4,872.  A  small  subscription  is  paid  to  the 
city  by  the  trades  unions  for  each  member  while  in  work. 
As  a  return  for  this  the  city  undertakes  to  add  50  per  cent, 
to  the  out-of-work  benefit  given  by  the  union  to  its  members, 
but  in  no  case  is  more  than  Is.  a  day  added  by  the  city.  At 
the  same  time,  in  connection  with  the  scheme,  there  is  a 
labour  exchange,  which  puts  the  insured  in  communication 
with  vacant  places.  Only  workmen  who  have  been  in 
the  city  a  year  and  who  have  lost  their  work  through 
no  fault  of  their  own  are  entitled  to  the  city  out-of- 
work  pay.  A  strict  eye  is  kept  upon  the  men,  so  that 
there  is  no  shirking  work  when  offered.  For  the  unor- 
ganised workmen  the  city  in  winter  starts  rehef  works. 
The  whole  insurance  scheme  in  1908  cost  the  city  only  £175. 
Supplementary  pay  was  given  by  the  municipality  to  443 
trades  unionists,  who  received  between  them  4,989  days' 
benefit. 

Other  smaller  municipalities  in  the  vicinity  are  following 
Strassburg's  lead,  and  in  Schiltigheim,  Bischheim  and  Erlangen 
similarly  successful  results  have  been  attained. 


140  Germany  of  the  Germans 

The  report  of  the  Q)logne  voluntary  municipal  insurance 
fund  against  unemployment  (which  is  run  on  entirely  different 

lines  and  which  has  been  in  existence  twelve 
^S^heml^^     years)  for  the  period  from  April,  1908,  until 

the  end  of  March,  1909,  is  interesting.  During 
the  twelve  months  the  number  of  insured  reached  1,957,  of 
whom  1,435  were  skilled  and  522  unskilled  workers,  mostly 
connected  with  the  building  trades.  The  men  in  order  to 
benefit  by  out-of-work  pay  from  the  fund  must  pay  in  at  least 
thirty-four  weekly  subscriptions  during  the  twelve  months — 
skilled  workers  paying  SJd.  and  unskilled  labourers  4Jd.  a 
week.  For  this  they  are  entitled  to  draw  during  the  three 
winter  months,  December,  January  and  February,  2s.  a  day 
for  twenty  days  and  Is.  daily  for  a  further  twenty-eight  days, 
but  if  suitable  work  is  offered  them  by  the  central  labour 
exchange  they  are  obliged  to  take  it.  Last  winter  1,433 
went  on  the  fund  for  altogether  37,971  days,  and  they  received 
61,934  M.  (;f3,096  14s.)  ;  829  per  cent,  of  the  members  went 
on.  The  city  gives  a  subsidy  of  £1,000  a  year.  According  to 
the  views  of  the  trades  unionists,  the  scheme  is  not  practical, 
because  only  men  who  are  virtually  certain  to  be  out  of 
work  for  a  certain  time  in  the  year  take  the  trouble  to  join. 

For   several   years   a   private   scheme   of   unemplo)anent 
insurance  has  been  in  operation  in  Leipzig  and  the  surrounding 

district,  under  the  auspices  and  control  of 
EffortsT         *^^    municipal    authorities.     A    society    has 

been  founded,  to  which  all  wage-earners  who 
have  lived  a  year  in  the  city  are  eligible  for  membership  at 
a  rate  of  subscription  varying  according  to  the  trade  or  calling 
with  its  greater  or  lesser  stability  of  employment.  The 
members  are  divided  into  four  classes,  the  first  paying  3}d.,  the 
second  4}d.,  the  third  6d.,  and  the  fourth  7id.  weekly 
subscription.  After  forty-two  weeks*  membership  any  mem- 
ber falling  out  of  employment  is  entitled  to  out-of-work  pay 
amounting  to  Is.  2Jd.  daily  for  forty-two  days  in  the  course 
of  a  year. 


The  Problem  of  the  Unemployed        141 

Mayence  has  also  tried  municipally  directed  out-of-work 
relief,  with  the  view  of  introducing  out-of-work  insurance. 
In  the  winter  of  1908  during  one  month 
Schemef^  single  men  out  of  employ  were  given  3s. 
weekly,  married  men  with  children  of  over 
fourteen  years  of  age,  4s.,  and  married  men  with  children 
under  fourteen  years  of  age,  5s.  weekly.  The  regulations 
required  recipients  to  have  passed  their  eighteenth  birthday, 
to  have  lived  a  year  in  Mayence,  to  have  been  over  a  fort- 
night out  of  work,  and  until  they  had  lost  their  places  to 
have  been  constantly  employed  since  the  preceding  March. 
The  control  was  exercised  through  the  trades  unions  for  the 
organised  workers  and  by  the  police  for  the  unorganised. 
Every  day  that  a  worker  did  not  register  himself  6d.  was 
deducted.  The  scheme  went  without  a  hitch.  No  attempt 
at  fraud  was  detected.  The  municipality  estimated  the  cost 
of  the  experiment  at  £500,  but  it  turned  out  that  only  £171 
was  used. 

In  Diisseldorf  the  municipality  expended  in  the  winter  of 
1908-1909  no  less  than  £24,926  on  out-of-work  relief,  which 
Reli  f  W  k  ^^^  given  in  the  shape  of  municipal  relief 
works.  The  total  cost  of  these  was  £10,000 
more  than  if  they  had  been  executed  in  normal  times  at  the 
ordinary  labourer's  wage.  This  has  forced  the  municipality 
to  take  into  consideration  the  introduction  of  compulsory 
unemployment  insurance. 

In  Elberfeld,  during  the  winter  of  1908-9  the  municipality 
expended  £7,477  on  relief  works  for  the  unemployed,  and  in 
every  large  city  in  the  empire  the  outlay  was  in  the  same 
proportion. 

An  interesting  report  on  the  progress  made  in  out-of-work 

insurance  has  been  drawn  up  for  the  town  of  Schoneberg,  a 

suburb  of  Berlin.     The  report  discusses  the 

^'^  R^port*^'"^   subject  in  all  its  bearings,  dealing  with  the 

various  possible  ways  of  preventing  unem- 

plo3mient.    In  the  first  place  is  mentioned  the  regulation  of 


142  Germany  of  the  Germans 

production,  which  it  is  proposed  to  place  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  State.  Then  the  arrangement  of  public  works 
so  that  they  should  be  carried  out,  where  possible,  only  in 
times  of  industrial  depression.  Finally,  the  organisation  of 
registry  offices  and  labour  exchanges  under  the  municipal 
authorities,  connected  with  a  central  office,  so  that  workers 
may  be  easily  put  into  contact  with  work  that  is  offered,  is 
thoroughly  gone  into. 

The  primary  condition  necessary  for  the  unemployed 
worker  who  seeks  public  support  is,  it  is  pointed  out,  proof 
that  he  has  honestly  but  unsuccessfully  sought  employment. 
His  first  duty  is  to  seek  work,  and  if  the  labour  exchange 
affirms  that  work  is  unobtainable  for  him,  then  he  may  claim 
assistance.  The  labour  exchange  thus  becomes  the  controlling 
factor.  The  support  given  must  stop  as  soon  as  the  worker 
finds  employment. 

No  scheme  has  yet  been  drawn  up  for  the  city  of 
Schoneberg,  but  the  municipal  council  is  pursuing  its 
inquiries. 

The  city  of  Charlottenburg  is  about  to  introduce  the  so- 
called  Bielefeld  system  of  giving  work  to  the  deserving  and 
willing  unemployed  in  its  own  undertakings, 

R^r  Pg  ^^f^^^  comprising  the  collection  of  dust  and  waste 
paper,  gardening,  etc.,  and  also  arranging 
for  private  persons  to  take  them  into  their  service  for 
unskilled  work.  The  city  authorities  pay  all  sickness,  old- 
age,  accident  and  infirmity  insurance  fees,  and  guarantee 
the  workers  from  two  to  three  shillings  a  day  while  in  their 
employ. 

An  important  factor  in  the  fight  against  distress  arising 

from  unemployment  is  the  establishment  of  labour  exchanges. 

Apart    from    those    connected    with    trades 

Labour         unions    and    private    registry    offices,    there 
Exchanges.  •      ^,  /^  i      r>       •       oon        i_v     i   x. 

are  m  the  whole  Empire  389  public  labour 

exchanges,  248  of  which  are  in  Prussia,  55  in  Bavaria,  11  in 

Saxony,  15  in  Wiirttemberg,  17  in  Baden,  10  in  Hesse,  and 


The  Problem  of  the  Unemployed        143 

16  in  Alsace-Lorraine,  3  each  in  Brunswick  and  Waldeck, 
2  each  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Oldenburg,  Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha  and  Hamburg,  and  1  each  in  Liibeck  and  Lippe.  During 
the  last  year  for  which  returns  are  available  these  exchanges 
found  employment  for  932,956  people,  of  whom  667,441  were 
men  and  265,505  women.  Only  61,742  situations  were  filled 
in  agricultural  employ,  the  remainder  being  spread  over 
the  various  trades. 

Most  of  the  labour  exchanges  are  organised  into  district 
unions,  which  are  in  constant  communication,  and  through 
which  the  supply  and  demand  are  equalised.  When  a  work- 
man is  offered  work  in  another  district,  the  railways,  which 
are  all  in  the  hands  of  the  State,  assist  him  to  get  there  by 
allowing  him  to  travel  at  Id.  for  five  miles.  At  some  of  the 
exchanges  registration  is  entirely  free,  at  others  a  small  fee 
is  charged. 

The  central  labour  exchange  of  Berlin,  which  is  subsidised 
by  the  city  to  the  extent  of  £2,750  annually  and  receives 
from  the  Prussian  State  railways  the  privi- 
R  uU**^  lege  of  very  cheap  railway  rates  for  workers 
proceeding  to  other  districts  to  take  jobs 
offered,  has  been  very  successful  in  its  efforts  to  bring  the 
unemployed  in  touch  with  employment.  In  the  year  1908 
no  fewer  than  100,000  applicants  were  placed  in  the  city,  and 
1 ,669  working  men  were  sent  by  the  exchange  to  definite  work 
in  other  districts.  During  the  twelve  months  16,686  women, 
other  than  domestics,  were  registered  as  out  of  emplo5nnent, 
and  15,213  inquiries  were  made  by  employers  for  working 
women.  Of  the  places  offered  12,700  were  filled  through 
the  medium  of  the  exchange.  Domestic  servants  registered 
to  the  number  of  867,  and  for  these  the  exchange  had 
1,184  places  at  its  disposal. 

The  Stuttgart  and  Munich  exchanges  each  provided 
places  for  over  70,000,  while  Dresden  and  Diisseldorf  were 
each  able  to  find  situations  for  about  50,000  in  the  course 
of  the  year. 


144  Germany  of  the  Germans 

The  scene  at  one  of  the  labour  exchanges  is  worth  description. 

If  a  visit  is  made  to  the  central  exchange  in  Cologne  early  any 

morning  in  winter  hundreds  of  unemployed 

Dailv  Scene  "^^^  ^  ^^^^  waiting  for  the  doors  to  open,  for 
the  rule  is  "First  come,  first  served."  Most 
of  the  men  are  unskilled  labourers,  many  of  whom  have 
voluntarily  joined  the  unemployment  insurance.  When  no 
work  is  offered  them  at  the  exchange  they  receive  the  daily 
pay  offered  from  the  insurance  fund,  which  is  just  enough  to 
keep  them  and  their  families  from  starvation.  All  are  cleanly 
if  not  well  dressed,  and  one  can  almost  discern  from  their 
clothing  to  what  branch  of  industry  they  belong.  Builders 
and  masons'  labourers  and  navvies,  prevented  by  the  pre- 
vailing frost  from  working,  ironworkers,  shopmen,  working 
women — all  kinds  are  there. 

None  need  to  remain  out  in  the  cold  when  the  doors  are 
opened.  There  are  separate  waiting-rooms  for  men  and 
women,  with  330  seats,  and  provided  with  newspapers.  The 
trades  unions  each  have  an  office.  Wash  basins  and  towels 
are  provided.  A  jobbing  tailor  and  a  snob  are  on  the 
premises  in  order  to  execute  repairs  at  moderate  prices  for 
those  who  desire  to  improve  their  appearance.  A  canteen 
is  provided  where  milk,  bread  and  fruit  are  sold  at  cheap 
rates. 

Many  veterans*  societies  also  have  labour  exchanges  con- 
nected with  them,  and  these  are  much  used  by  soldiers  leaving 
the  active  army  for  the  reserve.  The  greatest 
What  the  (iifficulty  is  encountered  by  them  in  filling 
situations  in  agricultural  districts,  in  conse- 
quence of  men,  originally  agricultural  labourers,  after  their 
period  of  service  has  expired,  showing  a  great  desire  to  remain 
in  the  cities  instead  of  returning  to  the  country. 

A  number  of  the  State  Governments  have  been  giving 
latterly  very  earnest  consideration  to  the  matter  of 
unemployment. 

The  Bavarian  Ministry  of  the  Interior  has  drawn  up  a 


The  Problem  of  the  Unemployed         145 

scheme    for    municipal    insurance    against    unemplo5mient, 
which  has  been  submitted  to  the  city  councils  of  all  the 

larger    towns   for   criticism.     It  is  proposed 
^^TcUoif*^*^   that  all  municipal  authorities  shaU  register 

the  skilled  and  unskilled  unorganised  unem- 
ployed and  also  the  skilled  unemployed  belonging  to  organ- 
isations not  providing  out-of-work  benefits.  These  are,  in 
case  the  scheme  becomes  law,  to  be  given  monetary  support 
in  a  ratio  dependent  on  the  ability  of  the  municipality  to 
supply  the  funds.  A  central  labour  exchange  is  also  to  be 
opened  in  each  city,  and  the  municipalities  are  asked  to 
arrange  the  carrying  out  of  any  suggested  public  works,  so 
that  they  shall  be  performed  in  times  of  depression. 

The  Ministry  of  the  Interior  of  Baden  has  also  issued  a 
memorandum  on  unemployed  insurance,  in  which  it  proposes 

the  introduction  of  the  system  of  municipal 

support  of  trades  unions  for  skilled  workmen 
who  are  out  of  work  and  of  a  voluntary  system  of  insurance 
under  the  auspices  of  the  city  authorities  for  unskilled 
labourers.  Should  the  voluntary  system  not  prove  efficient 
in  inducing  thrift  among  the  unskilled,  the  Ministry  is  of 
opinion  that  a  law  should  be  passed  authorising  the  munici- 
palities to  introduce  compulsory  insurance,  to  which  all 
unskilled  workmen  not  belonging  to  a  trades  union  should 
be  forced  to  subscribe  a  certain  weekly  sum  while  they  are 
in  work.  Voluntary  giving  up  of  a  situation  and  refusal  to 
take  suitable  work  when  offered  would  bar  a  man  from  out- 
of-work  pay.  The  Ministry  rejects  the  idea  of  starting  relief 
works,  as  dear  and  unsatisfactory. 

The  Prussian  Ministry  has  not  taken  any  official  steps 
towards  the  introduction  of  out-of-work  insurance,  but  has 

ordered  that  the  execution  of  public  works 
Waitin*         in  connection  with  the  railways,  the  roads, 

etc.,  shall  be  restricted  to  German  subjects, 
unless  by  special  permission,  which  is  only  accorded  when  no 
German  workmen  are  available. 

lo— {2391) 


146  Germany  of  the  Germans 

The  figures  relating  to  unemployment  in  various  trades  in 
Germany  for  the  year  1908  are  in  some  cases  of  an  almost 

alarming  nature.  For  instance,  the  union  of 
State  of  Various  j^etal  workers  and  engineers,  which  has  its 

headquarters  in  Stuttgart  and  comprises 
366,052  members,  had  in  the  first  quarter  of  1908  no  fewer 
than  9-2  per  cent,  of  its  members  on  the  out-of-work  list,  in 
the  second  quarter  the  percentage  ran  to  9-4,  in  the  third  to 
9"6  and  in  the  last  quarter  to  11-2.  The  number  of  days  of 
out-of-work  benefit  paid  out  amounted  to  2,673,000.  In 
the  stone-masonry  and  hair-dressing  trades  the  figures  were 
even  worse,  culminating  in  the  last  quarter  of  1908  with  per- 
centages of  66' 4  and  53-4  unemployed  out  of  every  100  mem- 
bers, while  in  the  same  quarter  the  upholsterers  and  glaziers 
had  40-9  and  28*0  of  every  hundred  members  on  the 
unemployed  Hst. 

With  these  facts  in  view,  it  appears  imperative  that  some 
steps  should  be  taken  by  the  various  States  to  counteract 

the  widespread  distress,  and,  as  the  workmen 
Some  Steps      -^   nearly  all   cases  object   to  relief   works, 

considering  them  as  only  a  form  of  cloaked 
charity,  the  introduction  of  a  scheme  of  insurance  to  which 
workman,  employer,  municipality  and  State  shall  contribute, 
in  proportions  to  be  worked  out  after  full  discussion  of  the 
subject,  seems  to  be  called  for,  and,  in  the  words  of  the  Baden 
Minister  of  Commerce,  must  come. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE   GREAT  INDUSTRIAL   MOVEMENT 

Rarely  indeed  in  the  history  of  the  world  has  a  nation 

made  such  rapid  commercial  and  industrial  progress  as  has 

the  German  Empire  since  its  foundation  in 

Rapid  igyi      JI12   that    time    split   up   into   smaU 

Development.  /.,,    ,        •  ,  •     ■,        •  .1 

fractions,    filled    with    petty   jealousies,    the 

nation,  soon  after  its  union,  began  to  feel  its  strength  and 
to  seek  for  outlets  for  its  enormous  latent  energies. 

The  best  thought,  the  keenest  intelligence  and  the  greatest 
energy  of  the  nation  have  been  and  are  being  concentrated  on 
the  advancement  of  its  prosperity,  and  devoted  to  the  task 
of  raising  it  to  a  higher  plane.  Where  formerly  the  classics 
occupied  the  minds  of  the  leading  men,  at  the  present  moment 
economics  are  the  leading  branch  of  study.  The  causes  of 
depression  and  prosperity  among  the  principal  foreign  nations, 
and  especially  among  Germany's  trade  rivals,  are  sought,  so 
that  mistakes  can  be  remedied  and  fresh  openings  for  trade 
secured.  Theory  and  practice  are  no  longer  separated,  but 
act  in  combination  in  commercial  affairs,  striving  to  push 
the  nation  forward  to  the  front  rank. 

The  industrial  system  which  has  been  developed  by  all 
these  efforts,  although  perhaps  not  ideal,  is 
Admirable       certainly  admirable  as  far  as  organisation  and 
efficiency  are  concerned. 

The  result  may  be  seen  in  the  gradual  transformation  of 
Germany  from  an  agricultural  into  an  industrial  nation.  The 
rural  population,  which  in  1871  amounted  to  64  per  cent.,  had 
decreased  in  1907  to  32*7  per  cent.,  and  since  then  has  still 
further  declined. 

147 


148  Germany  of  the  Germans 

The  industrial  growth  may  be  measured  to  a  certain  extent 
by  the  amount  of  fuel  consumed,  which  increased  in  round 
figures  from  100,000,000  tons  a  year  in  1895  to  considerably 
over  200,000,000  tons  in  1907. 

The  value  of  taxable  property  rose  from  £283,901,316  in 
1892  to  £510,758,890  in  1906,  when  the  last  valuation  was 
made. 

The  increases  in  the  imports  and  exports  are  remarkably 

significant.     In   1889,   including  precious  metals,   the  total 

of  the  imports  amounted  to  £220,710,000; 

^"Erortr*^     in  1908  it  was  £415,095,000.     The  exports  in 

""^^  ^*         1889  were  £178,795,000 ;    in  1908  they  were 

£350,980,000.     From  these  figures  it  can  be  seen  that  foreign 

trade  has  almost  doubled,  but  the  imports  have  increased  in 

greater  ratio  than  the  exports. 

In  the  meantime  the  population  during  the  same  years 
increased  from  about  49,000,000  to  about  63,000,000  at  the 
end  of  1908. 

In  examining  more  closely  some  of  the  causes  which  have 

brought  about  German  success,  it  must  be  recognised  that 

nothing  is  done  haphazard.     System  and  the 

Causes  of       ^-^^  ^^  attain  their  ends  are   the   principal 

0IICC6SS 

factors  in  their  triumphs.  Some  of  their 
methods  may  not  appeal  to  other  peoples,  who  regard  them 
as  destructive  to  individuality  and  personal  initiative.  The 
German  looks  at  the  nation  itself  as  an  individual  and  the 
people  forming  it  as  mere  parts  of  that  individuality,  all  of 
which  have  to  be  trained  to  act  in  unison  so  that  the  best 
result  can  be  attained. 

Their  compulsory  schooling  is  succeeded  by  virtually 
compulsory  apprenticeship,  compulsory  manual  training  in 
the  night  schools,  compulsory  thrift,  and  compulsory  military 
service — aU  tending  to  mould  the  people  into  those  parts  of 
the  national  machine  which  they  are  destined  to  become. 
Even  when  the  German  artisan  is  at  work  he  is  subjected  to 
almost  military  discipline. 


The  Great  Industrial  Movement         149 

Perhaps  one  of  the  reasons  why  Gennany  is  able  to  make 
so  much  progress  in  international  trade,  especially  in  machine- 
made  articles,  is  the  fact  that  German  work- 
^isd^fne^     men  are  more  amenable  to  discipline  than 
those  of  other  countries.     It  must  be  conceded 
that  in  machine  work  discipline  counts  for  much,  and  the 
employers  as  a  result  of  the  universal  strict  military  service 
have  it  placed  ready  to  their  hand.     The  German  workman, 
as  a  general  rule,  does  not  possess  much  initiative.     He  will 
do  what  he  is  told  to  do,  and  do  it  well ;   but  beyond  that 
he   does  not  go.     Specialisation,  under  the   new   conditions 
brought  about  by  the  introduction  of  machinery,  is  necessary, 
and  it  is  carried  out  to  a  fine  point  in  Germany.     A  system  of 
control,  too,  is  practised,  in  order  to  get  the  most  out  of  the 
workers  during  their  hours  of  labour. 

Law  compels  employers  to  send  their  apprentices  to  the 

continuation    schools    and    to    Sunday    and 

Trade^Qasses     ^'^^^i^S  classes  for  young  artisans,  which  are 

organised  by  the  local  authorities. 
Even  the  training  of  business  managers  is  undertaken  by 
some  of  the  technical  high  schools :  for  example,  that  in 
Dresden,  which  not  only  gives  the  pupils  a  thorough  technical 
and  theoretical  knowledge  of  the  trades  they  desire  to  follow, 
but  teaches  them  how  to  direct  the  business  of  a  firm,  the 
handling  of  men,  and  the  making  of  estimates. 

The  situation  of  the  workman  is  not  so  good  as  in  America 
or  England,  but  is  being  rapidly  improved  by  the  action  of  the 
trades  unions. 

Wages  have  risen  and  working  hours  declined  to  a  remark- 
able extent  throughout  Germany  in  the  last  twenty  years. 
While  living  has  become  very  much  dearer, 
^H^o^iLs^'^^      yet   the   workers   are   better  off  than   they 
were.     The  tendency  to  improve  their  position 
is  still  marked,  and  manufacturers  who,  owing  to  the  low 
wages  formerly  prevailing,  were  able  to  compete  successfully 
without  trouble  at  a  goodly  profit  with  foreigners,  even  often 


150  Germany  of  the  Germans 

paying  freight,  now  find  that  the  German  workman  is 
demanding  his  dues  and  getting  them,  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  profits  are  cut  down  to  a  very  low  figure,  and  it  is 
only  owing  to  cutting  off  all  waste  expenditure  and  per- 
fecting methods  that  they  will  in  the  near  future  be  able  to 
compete  at  all. 

Printers,  miners,  metal-workers,  stokers,  machine-men, 
wood-workers,  glaziers,  builders,  carpenters,  bakers,  textile 
workers  and  municipal  employees  have  all  succeeded  in 
considerably  shortening  their  working  hours  and  have  at  the 
same  time  secured  increases  of  wages. 

Despite  these  improvements,  the  position  of  many  factory 
workers  is  not  a  brilliant  one,  as  may  be  seen  from  an  interest- 
ing collection  of  statistics  obtained  by  the 
pfeures         German  Union  of  Factory  Workers,  composed 
of  140,000  members,    to   each   of    whom    a 
circular  was  sent  asking  for  information  on  these   points. 
The  replies  received  totalled  79,140,  of  which  73,088  were 
from  men  and  6,052  from  women   workers.     Of  the  total 
61,383  worked  54-60  hours  per  week,    11,183  worked  from 
60-72  hours  and  more  weekly,  and  only  6,574  worked  less 
than  54  hours  weekly.     The  average  weekly  wage  of  all  the 
men  working  in  factories   was   22s.  9d.,  while   that  of  the 
women  was  lis.  6d.     Only  530  of  the  men  received  more  than 
35s.  a  week,  and  only  sixteen  of  the  women  more  than  20s. 
weekly. 

Probably  the  large  number  of  foreign  workmen  coming 

into  the  country  from  lands  where  wages  are  still  lower  has 

retarded    the    increase    of    wages    in    some 

Wo/kmen       industries  to  a  certain  extent.     The  number 

of  foreign  workmen  employed  in  the  German 

Empire  is  in  round  figures  1,000  000,  of  whom  600,000  are 

engaged  in  industries  and  400,000  in  agriculture.     Of  the 

total    400,000    are    Austrians,    270,000    Russians,    150,000 

Italians,  100,000  Dutchmen,  and  the  remainder  of  various 

nationalities. 


The  Great  Industrial  Movement  151 

The  progress  of  trades  unionism  was  considerably  assisted 

by  the  introduction  of  the  compulsory  insurance  laws  for 

workmen,  as  these  enactments  relieved  the 

ra  es  nions.  ^^.^^^gg  unions  of  a  heavy  burden.  The 
position  of  the  German  Socialist  trades  unions  and  the  trade 
societies  of  Great  Britain  may  be  exactly  compared,  as  they 
are  numerically  almost  equal.  In  each  country  there  are 
about  2,000,000  trades  unionists,  and  the  income  of  the  trade 
societies  in  each  case  amounts  to  about  £2,350,000  annually. 
Their  expenditure,  however,  is  on  an  entirely  different  footing. 
The  British  trades  unions  paid  out  in  sick  and  superannuation 
pay,  according  to  the  yearly  statistics  for  1906,  no  less  than 
£735,000,  while  the  German  trades  unions  paid  out  only 
£190,000  for  the  same  purpose.  Death  money  to  the  total  of 
only  £10,000  was  paid  by  the  British  unions,  whereas  the 
Germans  paid  out  £115,000.  Unemployed  pay  in  the  British 
unions  totalled  £430,000,  while  the  Germans  paid  out  only 
£180,000.  As  may  be  seen  from  these  few  figures,  the  funds 
of  the  German  unions  did  not  have  so  many  calls  made  upon 
them.  They  were  thus  able  to  give  a  greater  amount  of 
pecuniary  support  to  strikers,  the  total  paid  out  under 
this  head  reaching  £790,000,  against  only  £160,000  paid 
out  by  the  British  unions  for  the  same  purpose.  Strikes  in 
Germany  tend  to  increase  every  year.  For  the  year  under 
review  they  totalled  3,626  with  349,000  strikers,  whereas 
in  Great  Britain  they  numbered  only  486  with  158,000 
strikers. 

The  exact  number  of  members  belonging  to  the  Socialist 

trades  unions  at  the  end  of  1908  was  1,831,731,  of  whom 

138,443  were  women.     There  are  two  other 

Members        important  federations  of  trades  unions,  which 

are  not  of  a  political  character,  namely,  the 

Hirsch-Duncker   Federation,    numbering    105,558    members, 

and    the     Christian     trades     unions,     comprising     264,519 

members. 

In  direct  opposition  to  the  trades  unions  are  the  associations 


152  Germany  of  the  Germans 

of  employers.  There  were  at  the  beginning  of  1909  no  fewer 
than  127  of  these  associations  with  a  total  membership  of 
159,304  employers,  giving  employment  to  3,648,679  workers. 
They  are,  however,  not  so  well  organised  as  the  trades  unions, 
and  up  till  the  present  they  have  not  formed  a  central 
federation. 

Work-books,  once  carried  by  all  workers,  are  now  confined 
to  minors  and  domestics.     In  them  are  inscribed  the  name 

of  the  owner,  place   and  date  of   birth,  date 
^ook"'        ^^   starting   and   quitting    an    employ,    and 

nature  of  the  occupation.  In  the  case  of 
minors  under  sixteen  the  book  also  contains  the  name 
and  domicile  of  the  father  or  guardian.  An  employer  may 
not  write  his  opinion  of  the  abilities  of  the  worker  or  the 
reason  for  leaving  in  the  book,  either  favourable  or 
unfavourable. 

The  workers'  welfare  is  well  watched  over  in  the  workshops. 
Factory  inspectors  are  at  aU  times  empowered  to  visit  factories 

where  ten  men  and  over  are  employed,  and  in 
W  ?fa?^        trades  regarded  as  unhealthy  even  where  a 

smaller  number  of  persons  are  engaged.  In 
many  factories,  where  the  work  is  of  a  dirty  nature,  shower 
baths  are  provided,  together  with  wardrobes  for  the  men's 
outdoor  clothing,  for  it  is  customary  in  Germany  for  the 
workman  to  change  his  outer  clothing  entirely  before  he  starts 
work.  This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  the  working  men,  in 
whatever  trade,  present  such  a  clean,  neat  and  weU-to-do 
appearance  in  the  streets. 

It  is  a  very  rare  thing  for  a  worker  to  be  accorded  a  vacation, 
with  his  wages,  in  a  German  factory ;  but  of  late  years  some 
firms  have  introduced  the  system,  and  there  is  some  likelihood 
of  its  spreading  throughout  the  country,  as  the  grant  has 
tended  to  create  more  satisfaction  with  the  conditions  of 
labour  where  it  has  been  introduced.  The  German  workman 
has  been  badly  off  indeed  in  this  respect,  for  he  does  not  have 
a  Saturday  half-holiday. 


The  Great  Industrial  Movement         1S3 

The  family  life  of  the  working  people  is  on  the  most  modest 
scale.     They  are  usually  contented  with  their  lot  in  life,  and 
do  not  share  in  the  hunt  after  excitement 
Workers'        ^^^  extravagance.     Temperate  to  a  remark- 
able degree,  they  delight  to  stay  at  home  and 
enjoy  the  company  of  their  wives  and  children  and  join  with 
them  in  simple  home  amusements. 

The  extraordinary  thrift  of  the  working  classes,  men  and 
women,  is  shown  by  the  savings  banks'  returns,  which  give 
a  total  of  over  19,000,000  small  depositors,  who  have 
£642,600,000  to  their  credit,  all  of  which  is  guaranteed  by  the 
municipalities. 

Although  small  incomes  are  the  rule  everywhere  throughout 

Germany,  there  is  a  considerable  number  of  persons  who  are 

in  receipt  of  incomes  which  may  be  considered 

Some  Large     ^^  placing  them  in  very  comfortable  positions. 

Incomes.  .  ,.  ,  .  r  ^r^rxr> 

Accordmg  to  the  mcome-tax  returns  for  1908, 

there  were  in  Prussia  alone  no  fewer  than  17,957  persons 

enjoying  an  annual  income  of  between  ;f  1,500  and  ;f5,000, 

a  body  of  3,796  persons  who  had  over  £5,000,    190  with 

from  £25,000  to  £50,000,  and  77  with  more  than  £50,000 

a  year. 

Among  the  principal  industries  are  those  connected  with 

coal,  iron  and  steel. 

Prmcipal  Owing  to  the  immense  richness  in  coal  of 

Industries.  ° 

the  Ruhr,  the  Saar  and  the  Upper  Silesian 

districts,     the     iron     and     steel     industries     of     Germany 

have   concentrated   there   and    have   made    such   enormous 

progress    that    they    now    employ    over    2,000,000    hands. 

Three    works    alone,    the    Krupp,    the    Phcenix    and    the 

Gelsenkirchen  Companies,  give  employment  to  over  150,000 

people. 

Coal-mining  is  a  great  industry,  employing  about  1,000,000 

workers.     The  State  takes  part  in  it  to  a  considerable  extent. 

Of  the   total  of   143,168,300  tons  of  coal  mined  in    1907 

throughout  Germany  the  State  took  out  10,693,000. 


154  Germany  of  the  Germans 

The  Government  mines  in  the  Saar  district  employ  51,000 

miners  and  officials,  whose  families  number  over  200,000. 

Forty  per  cent,  of  the  men  possess  their  own 

^M^neT"*     cottages  ;  31  per  cent,  live  with  their  parents  ; 

the  remainder  live  in  surrounding  villages. 

The  mines  are  models  of  organisation  and  are  situated  in  the 

centre  of  artificially  cultivated  forests  which  belong  to  the 

State. 

In  the  Rhenish  Westphalian  coal  district,  which  thirty  years 
ago  was  almost  undeveloped  and  only  provided  work  for 
thousands,  towns  have  sprung  up,  and  hundreds  of  thousands 
are  now  employed.  Everywhere  can  be  seen  slack  heaps 
resembling  miniature  mountain  ranges  and  flaming  chimneys 
of  iron  and  steel  works. 

The  production  of  pig-iron  has  increased  rapidly  since  1900, 
when  8,521,000  tons  were  produced.  In  1907,  13,046,000 
were  produced,  but  this  total  fell  off  to  11,814,000  in 
1908,  owing  to  the  trade  crisis  which  affected  the  whole 
world. 

Machinery  construction  forms  a  very  important  branch  of 
German  industry,  employing  over  600,000  persons. 

The  electrical  industry  has  spread  to  immense  proportions, 

and  the  companies  connected  with  it  possess  vast  resources 

and  employ  many  thousands  of  men.     They 

fndiwtr*^       are  at  the  present  moment  formed  into  three 

great    trusts,    which    have    eliminated    the 

disastrous  competition  carried  on  by  the  host  of  smaller 

concerns  before  the  economic  crisis  that  occurred  at  the 

beginning  of  this  century. 

The  principal  object  aimed  at  by  the  trade,  now  that  the 
municipalities  have  universally  adopted  the  electric-lighting 
system  and  the  tramways  have  all  been  transformed  into 
electric  lines,  is  the  electrification  of  the  great  main  lines  of 
railway,  nearly  all  of  which  are  in  the  possession  of  the  various 
States  of  the  Empire. 

On  nimibers  of  the  shorter  and  secondary  hncs  electricity 


Photo  by 


Kessler 


BARONESS  VOX  BOHLEX  (XEE  KRUPP 


OF 


The  Great  Industrial  Movement         155 

has  been  introduced  and  has  proved  very  practical  and 
economical  in  working.  Railway  engineers  say  that  the  cost 
of  electrification  is  soon  paid  for  by  the  diminution  of  the 
working  force  necessary,  as  the  motors  do  not  require  so  much 
cleansing,  damage  to  forests  by  fire  is  avoided,  whereby 
thousands  of  pounds  yearly  are  saved,  there  is  no  smoke 
from  locomotives  to  injure  crops,  a  far  smaller  quantity 
of  coal  is  necessary  to  develop  the  electricity  than  to  run 
separate  steam  locomotives,  and  thus  space  and  buildings 
are  saved. 

Chemistry,  in  which  over  90,000  persons  are  employed,  has 
had  its  home  in  Germany  since  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 

era,   and  the  Germans  seem  to  have  been 
^Trade^       among  the  first  to  discover  the  value  of  the 

natural  treasures  in  the  shape  of  mineral  and 
vegetable  salts,  although  owing  to  the  divisions  of  the  nation 
the  chemical  industry  was  not  properly  developed  until  later 
than  in  England.  At  the  present  moment  Germany  possesses 
practically  a  monopoly  in  the  production  of  potash  salts, 
so  useful  for  fertihsation  purposes.  Over  ;f5,000,000  worth 
of  these  salts  are  utilised  annually  in  Germany  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  soil,  and  enormous  quantities  are  exported.  In 
the  manufacture  of  pharmaceutical  preparations  and  smelling 
salts  also  Germany  takes  a  leading  part.  In  the  past  quarter 
of  a  century  more  discoveries  have  been  made  in  chemistry 
than  in  any  other  branch  of  science,  and  with  her  natural 
resources  and  highly  trained  chemical  specialists  Germany 
promises  to  keep  her  lead  in  this  respect. 

One   branch  of  manufacture,   which  is  entirely  new  to 
Germany,  has  made  enormous  strides  since  its  introduction. 

In  very  recent  years  Saxony  has  won  a  place 
N  w  Trad        ^^  ^^^  manufacture  of  tulle  which  is  causing 

considerable  uneasiness  in  other  countries. 
In  the  vicinity  of  Plauen  and  Chemnitz  factories  have 
sprung  up  like  mushrooms.  Twenty  years  ago  not  a  yard 
of  tulle  was  made  in  the  German  Empire.     Now  1,100  tulle 


156  Germany  of  the  Germans 

frames  turn  out  £2,000,000  worth  annually,  and  more  are 
being  erected.  The  machines  for  the  industry  are  also  being 
constructed  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  it  is  said  that  the 
spools  and  shuttles,  the  secret  of  manufacturing  which  has 
hitherto  been  in  English  hands,  has  now  been  discovered, 
and  that  in  future  the  whole  trade  will  be  entirely 
independent. 

One  of  the  most  important  glass  works  in  the  world  is  to 

be  found  in  Jena,  where  fifty-five  tons  of  optical  glasses  of  all 

kinds  alone  are  made  yearly,  and  exported 

Branches        ^^^^  ^^^   entire   world,   including   telescopic 

lenses  up  to  four  feet    in    diameter.     Ovfer 

1,200  workers  are  employed. 

Other  great  branches  of  industry  are  quarrying,  employing 
317,000  ;  the  wood-working  trades,  in  which  over  200,000 
people  are  engaged  ;  the  clothing  trade,  employing  220,000  ; 
and  printing,  which  occupies  considerably  over  100,000  people, 
without  taking  into  consideration  the  bookbinding  and  other 
branches  connected  with  it. 

In  the  eastern  provinces  of  Germany,  progress  has  not  been 

so  rapid  as  in  other  districts,  owing  to  the  lack  of  coal  and 

iron,  but  in  spite  of  this  rather  unfavourable 

^ttie  WesT^  position  strong  efforts  are  continually  being 
made  to  establish  industries  there.  The 
utiHsation  of  the  water  power  of  rivers,  with  which  the  east 
is  weU  provided,  promises  to  change  the  aspect  of  these 
hitherto  almost  purely  agricultural  provinces,  which  will  then 
be  able  to  participate  more  freely  in  the  timber  trades,  in 
brickmaking,  papermaking,  and  the  textile  trades.  The 
Emperor  gave  an  impetus  to  the  industrial  movement  of  the 
east  by  his  speech  at  the  opening  of  the  Danzig  Technical  High 
School,  when  he  said :  "If  the  eastern  provinces,  owing  to 
their  position  and  natural  conditions,  are  less  adapted  to 
industrial  development  than  other  parts  of  the  Empire,  yet 
technical  knowledge  will  be  able  to  replace  in  many  instances 
what  nature  has  failed  to  provide." 


The  Great  Industrial  Movement         157 

Germany  shares  with  England  and  the  United  States  the 

honour  of  the  lead  in  inventiveness.     It  is,  however,  notable 

that  very  few  inventions  are  brought  to  the 

Inv?ntivwi€ss  ^^°^*  ^^  ^^^  working  classes.  This  is,  accord- 
ing to  people  who  have  studied  the  subject  in 
various  countries,  to  be  traced  to  the  fact  that  the  German 
artisans  work  longer  hours  and  so  have  less  time  to  devote  to 
exercising  their  inventive  genius.  In  technical  inventions 
Germany  is  well  to  the  front.  To  take  one  branch  alone,  in 
one  year  no  fewer  than  1,500  patents  were  appHed  for  in 
Germany  for  inventions  connected  with  electricity. 

It  is  not  only  in  the  systematic  organisation  of  their  indus- 
tries that  the  Germans  have  made  great  progress,  but  also  in 
the  way  of  bringing  their  wares  to  market. 

The  commercial  German  is  among  the  leaders  of  his  kind. 
He  is  more  to  be  thanked  for  Germany's  prosperity  than  is 
the  industrial,  for  he  has  gone  all  over  the 
'^^^cSmSi^'"'''^  world  and  sought  markets  for  the  goods. 
He  finds  no  trouble  too  great  when  he  is 
seeking  openings  for  trade.  He  learns  the  languages,  customs, 
and  coinage  of  the  various  countries,  and  by  placing  his  goods 
before  the  foreigners  in  their  own  language  and  figures  he 
often  secures  orders  where  others  fail. 

Two  small  examples  of  the  German  readiness  to  meet  the 
wishes  of  customers :  The  egg-cups  imported  into  India  at 
one  time  aU  came  from  Great  Britain.  The  Indian  eggs  are, 
however,  very  small,  and  the  egg-cups  did  not  fit.  A  German 
traveller  noticed  this  small  item  and  got  his  firm  to  make 
smaller  egg-cups  and  export  them  there.  AU  the  trade  is  now 
in  German  hands. 

In  Africa  the  scissors  imported  from  Sheffield  were  found 
to  be  rather  dangerous  weapons  to  place  in  the  hands  of 
the  natives  owing  to  their  sharp  points.  The  Solingen 
steel  works  sent  a  lot  of  round-pointed  scissors  out,  which 
found  favour,  and  now  Gennany  has  captured  the  whole 
market. 


158  Germany  of  the  Germans 

The  banks  may  be  said  to  compose  the  very  marrow  in 
the  bones  of  German  commerce.     Always  ready  to  furnish 
capital  to  enterprising  manufacturers  and  for 
''svstenr*^       promising  speculations,  many  of  the  larger 
institutions  retain  a  staff  of  experts  in  elec- 
tricity,  engineering,   shipping,   railways   and   other  leading 
branches  who  report  on  the  prospects  of  success,  and  if  their 
reports  are  satisfactory  the  bank  at  once  guarantees  the 
necessary  monetary  aid. 

There  are  altogether  in  Germany  442  banking  companies 
with  a  total  paid-up  capital  of  ;fl84,750,000  and  ;f50,000,000 
reserves.  Six  of  these  are  note-issuing  banks,  40  mortgage 
banks,  396  credit  banks. 

It  was  Frederick  the  Great  who,  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
initiated  the  system  of  land  credit  and  mortgage  banks, 
L  d  c  d't  ^^^^^  -^^s  proved  of  such  enormous  value  to 
agriculture,  and  has  practically  rooted  out 
the  formerly  prevalent  usury.  The  operations  of  each  of  these 
banks,  which  exist  only  in  Germany,  Austria  and  the  western 
provinces  of  Russia,  are  confined  to  a  certain  district,  where 
it  lends  money  on  landed  property  up  to  a  certain  proportion 
of  its  officially  estimated  value.  The  capital  is  raised  by 
means  of  mortgage  notes  sold  to  the  public,  which  pass  readily 
from  hand  to  hand  in  the  open  market.  The  banks  are 
co-operative  institutions  formed  by  the  landowners  of  the 
district,  who  give  a  general  guarantee  for  the  payment  of  the 
interest. 

Another  series  of  these  mortgage  banks  deals  with  city  and 

industrial  property.     It  was  instituted  about  fifty  years  ago, 

and  has  had  an  immense  and  beneficial  influ- 

BanS^^       ence  on  the  development  and  extension  of  the 

cities  and  in  assisting  in  the  spread  of  industry. 

At  the  end  of  the  year  1907  mortgages  on  land  arranged 

by  these  institutions  amounted  to  £481,120,000.     This  figure 

has  since  that  date  greatly  increased,  and  it  is  now  estimated 

that  the  mortgages  amount  to  £600,000,000,  and  other  loans 


The  Great  Industrial  Movement  159 

on  property  to  ;f300,000,000.  The  percentage  of  interest 
on  mortgages  ranges  between  SJ  and  5,  the  average  being 
about  3' 66  per  cent.,  but  it  shows,  together  with  the 
interest  on  Government  loans,  an  inclination  to  recede 
steadily. 

The  agricultural  element  in  Germany  takes  a  very  important 
position  in  the  country.  Over  17,500,000  of  the  population 
.  areengagedincultivating  just  over  80,000,000 

acres  of  land,  which  in  general  is  fairly  fertile. 
It  produces  annually  an  average  of  10,700,000  tons  of  rye, 
3,760,000  of  wheat,  3,050,000  of  barley,  46,000,000  of  potatoes, 
7,600.000  of  oats,  12,500  of  hops,  besides  hay  and  other 
products,  and  wine  is  grown  to  the  value  of  £6,300,000 
annually. 

The  breeding  of  animals  for  food  also  gives  very  extensive 
occupation  to  the  population.  There  were  over  20,600,000 
cattle,  7,700,000  sheep,  22,000,000  pigs,  3,500,000  goats,  and 
77,000,000  poultry  at  the  last  census.  Besides  these  there 
were  4,300,000  horses. 

Many  of  the  farmers  possess  not  only  a  thorough  practical 
knowledge  of  agriculture,  but  have  also  passed  through  a 
severe  scientific  and  theoretical  course  at  one  of  the  excellent 
agricultural  high  schools.  They  apply  the  knowledge  thus 
acquired  with  very  successful  results  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
land,  which  is  made  to  produce  to  its  highest  capacity. 

The  smaU  farmer,  who  at  one  time  was  strongly  in  favour 

of  the  imposition  of  duties  on  grain,  has  of  late  years  somewhat 

slackened  in  his  belief  in  the  system.    He,  as 

^Tariff °^        a  rule,  grows  very  little  wheat  to  sell.     It  is 

mostly  for  his  own  use,  so  that  the  high 

selling  price  does  not  bring  him  any  profit.     The  big  farmers, 

on  the  other  hand,  who  grow  great  quantities  of  wheat,  are 

enabled,  owing  to  the  duty  raising  prices,  to  make  very  good 

profits  on  their  sales.    This  leads  the  big  farmers,  when  prices 

are  high,  to  buy  up  neighbouring  land,  so  as  to  be  able  to 

increase  their  profits,  and  thus  the  small  farmer  is  ousted 


160  Germany  of  the  Germans 

from  the  land,  and  forced  to  turn  to  the  towns,  a  fate  which  the 
imposition  of  the  duties  was  intended  to  hinder. 

There  exists  a  large  body  of  opinion  among  manufacturers 
and  commercial  men  in  favour  of  a  return  to  free  trade,  but 

it  is  entirely  unorganised,  and  in  face  of  the 
Ooinion         well-disciplined  phalanx  of  landowners  stands 

small  chance  of  a  hearing.  The  exponents 
of  the  principle  of  free  trade  argue  that  an  enormous  increase 
of  exports  is  necessary  to  keep  pace  with  the  rapid  growth 
of  population.  Hitherto  exports  have  not  accomplished  this, 
and  the  cause  is  said  by  the  free  traders  to  be  that  the  protec- 
tive tariffs  imposed  by  Germany  make  other  countries  resort 
to  reprisals  with  the  result  that  the  German  products  are  often 
shut  out.  They  adduce  the  argument  that  in  times  of  great 
prosperity  all  over  the  world  the  damage  to  German  trade 
thus  caused  is  not  greatly  noticed,  but  whenever  a  depression 
sets  in  she  is  among  the  first  to  suffer. 

The  difference  in  prices  caused  by  the  protective  tariff  on 
grain  is  enormous.     Whereas  in  London  white  wheat  is  quoted 

in  round  figures  at  £1  16s.  Od.  per  ton,   in 

Berlin  it  costs  £10  10s.  Od.  Rye-bread  costs 
in  Berlin  at  the  present  moment  4d.  per  kilogram  or  2J  English 
pounds,  while  wheaten  bread  is  unobtainable  under  3d.  a 
pound. 

The  tariff  laws  grant  farmers  who  export  cereals  certificates 
permitting  them  to  import  similar  or  other  cereals  free  of  duty. 
For  instance,  if  a  farmer  exports  fifty  tons  of  oats  he  receives 
a  certificate  of  the  value  of  £125,  which  would  be  the  amount  of 
the  duty  on  fifty  tons  of  imported  oats.  The  farmer,  however, 
instead  of  importing  oats,  brings  in  forage-barley,  the  duty 
on  which  is  only  £32  10s.  for  fifty  tons,  so  that  with  his  certi- 
ficate he  can  import  nearly  200  tons  of  forage-barley,  which  he 
can  then  sell  at  the  high  home  prices.  As  coffee  and  petroleum 
may  also  be  imported  with  these  certificates,  the  State  loses 
an  enormous  amount  of  duty,  which  goes  into  the  pockets  of 
the  great  landowners. 


The  Great  Industrial  Movement         161 

As  to  the  position  of  the  farm  labourer,  it  is  often  described 

as  being  no  better  than  that  of  a  serf  in  some  parts  of  the 

country.     The  stories  of  mishandling  on  the 

-'lb  ^r^i"  P^^^  employers  must  be  regarded  in  many 
,  '       cases    as   exaggerated,    but    that    the    farm 

labourer  has  not  made  such  progress  as  his  industrial  brother 
seems  evident  from  the  figures  of  an  average  married  agricul- 
tural labourer's  budget  for  himself  and  family  in  East  Prussia, 
which  are  :  Weekly  earnings,  9s.  Expenditure  :  32  lb.  rough 
rye  bread,  4s.  ;  2  lb.  lard.  Is.  2id.  ;  6  quarts  milk,  SJd.  ; 
3  herrings,  IJd.  ;  meat,  salt,  onions,  coffee,  wood  fuel,  petro- 
leum, soap,  2s.  2Jd.,  leaving  SJd.  surplus  weekly  for  clothing, 
etc.     The  lodging  is  free. 

The  average  wage  of  farm  labourers  is,  however,  somewhat 
higher  in  other  districts,  amounting  generally  in  summer  to 
lis.  6d.  per  week,  with  free  lodging  and  potatoes,  while  the 
wife  can  earn  7s.  3d.  a  week.  In  winter  the  wages  of  each 
respectively  are  9s.  and  5s.  6d.  weekly. 

The  co-operative  movement  has  made  enormous  strides  in 

Germany  in  recent  years.     Not  only  does  the  movement  apply 

to  the  co-operative  manufacture  and  supply 

'     of  aU  kind  of  articles,  but  also  to  the  working 

of  land  by  small  farmers,  who  join  together  in  the  purchase 

of  up-to-date  machinery  for  mutual  use. 

Co-operative  supply  societies  numbered  at  the  end  of  1907 
no  fewer  than  51,000,  with  a  total  membership  of  over 
8,000,000. 


II— (2391) 


CHAPTER  XVII 

MODEL  FORESTERS 

Sentiment  and  foresight  combined  have  placed  Germany 

in  the  proud  position  of  serving  as  a  model  to  all  other  countries 

in    connection   with    the    preservation    and 

^^^Jstlm!^""^  cultivation  of  forest  land.  Long  before  any 
other  nation  had  given  a  thought  to  the 
immense  damage  that  was  being  done  to  the  soil  by  denuding 
it  of  timber,  or  to  the  false  economy  of  using  up  natural 
resources  without  making  any  provision  for  future  needs, 
Germany  had  thoroughly  weighed  the  consequences  and 
adopted  a  system  of  reafforestation  which  is  now  recognised 
by  technical  experts  from  all  over  the  world  to  be  as  nearly 
perfect  as  possible. 

It  must  be  admitted,  even  by  those  opposed  to  what  is 
termed  "  State  Socialism,"  that  the  intervention  of  the 
Government  in  this  connection  has  been  of  undoubted  benefit 
to  the  nation. 

The  administration  and  oversight  of  the  forests  is  wonder- 
fully efficient,  so  much  so  that  the  Indian  Forestry  Department 
engaged   German   foresters    trained    in    the 

^Efficient^^^  technical  schools  in  this  country  to  organise 
the  forest  preservation  and  cultivation  in  the 
Indian  Empire,  and  with  very  satisfactory  results. 

The  minute  manner  in  which  every  detail  of  forestry  is 
studied  is  another  instance  of  the  thoroughness  of  Germans 
when  they  have  once  set  their  minds  on  a  task. 

The  most  productive  trees,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
soil,  are  selected  for  plantation,  and  not  a  foot  of  available 
land  is  permitted  to  remain  idle  for  longer  than  is  absolutely 
necessary.     Whenever  a  clump  of  trees  is  felled,  a  plot  of 


Model  Foresters  163 

land  of  equal  extent  is  planted  simultaneously  to  provide 
for  future  requirements. 

It  has  been  found  in  practice  that  the  oak,  the  birch,  the 
beech,  the  pine,  the  larch  and  the  red  and  white  fir  furnish 
the  most  profit. 

The  plan  of  taking  care  of  the  forests  has  not  only  had  the 
effect  of  retaining  and  improving  the  beauties  of  the  country- 
side, but  has  also  been  very  profitable  to  the 

^^pJ'iJSJar'*  various  Federal  Governments  of  the  Empire. 
During  the  year  1908,  the  Federal  States  made 
a  total  net  profit  of  no  less  than  £7,650,000  from  their  public 
lands  and  forests,  after  all  the  expenditure  had  been  deducted. 
This  sum  really  falls  directly  into  the  pockets  of  the  taxpayers, 
who  would,  if  the  money  had  not  been  earned  by  the  Forestry 
Departments,  have  undoubtedly  been  called  upon  for  still 
larger  increases  of  taxation  than  were  levied. 

The  forests  belonging  to  the  various  States,  however,  do 
not  compose  even  a  half  of  the  forest  land  in  the  Empire. 
There  are  altogether  in  Germany  34,734,123  acres  of 
woodland  area,  distributed  fairly  equally  over  all  the 
States,  except  Schleswig-Holstein,  where,  however,  reaffores- 
tation is  now  being  undertaken.  Of  the  total  32*9  per 
cent,  belongs  to  the  Governments,  47*5  per  cent,  to  private 
owners,  including  the  rulers,  1*3  per  cent,  to  the  Church, 
15' 6  per  cent,  to  various  municipalities,  and  2*3  per  cent,  to 
public  corporations. 

The  proportion  of  the  land  of  the  Empire  covered  with 
woods  is  25*7  per  cent.,  or  just  over  a  quarter.  Some  of  the 
States  show  a  much  larger  proportion.  For 
Wocfds  instance,  Meiningen  is  wooded  to  the  extent 
of  41*7  per  cent.,  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 
45-4  per  cent.,  Baden  37-5  per  cent.,  Bavaria  33  per  cent., 
Hesse  31*3  per  cent.,  Wiirttemberg  30' 8  per  cent.,  Alsace- 
Lorraine  30' 6  per  cent.,  and  Saxony,  despite  its  almost  entirely 
industrial  character,  has  27*7  per  cent,  of  forests. 

The  entire  profit  in  1908  was  estimated  at  nearly  £22,000.000, 


164  Germany  of  the  Germans 

but  there  is  no  possibility  of  getting  at  the  exact  figures.  It 
must  be  understood  that  the  value  of  the  forest  lands  is 
constantly  increasing. 

Every  acre  devoted  to  forestry  is  said  to  produce  forty-six 
cubic  feet  of  timber  yearly.  The  most  recent  figures  for  a 
year's  produce  give  20,017,896  cubic  metres  of  useful  timber, 
and  17,850,646  cubic  metres  of  firewood. 

It  is  not  only  from  the  timber  produced  by  the  forests  that 
the  States  reap  a  profit.  Peat  is  also  got  in  great  quantities. 
Then  there  are  the  shooting  rents  paid  by  sportsmen,  which 
in  Alsace-Lorraine  bring  in  nearly  ;f 4,000  a  year ;  in  Baden, 
;f2,660  ;  in  Bavaria,  £5,750. 

As  to  the  number  of  persons  engaged  in  the  work  of  cultiva- 
tion and  preservation,  only  the  figures  for  Prussia  are  available. 
These  show  that  no  fewer  than  65,392  people 
nJ^Soyed  ^^^^  employed  in  the  Prussian  forests  in"  1907, 
including  officials  and  labourers.  Prussia  is 
far  from  being  the  most  wooded  of  the  States,  so  that  the 
number  of  persons  employed  in  this  work  throughout  the 
Empire  must  be  very  large. 

The  upper  division  of  State  forestry  officials — chief  foresters 
and  rangers — consists  of  men  of  the  highest  educational 
attainments  and  technical  training.  They  are  chosen  from 
pupils  of  the  superior  classical,  semi-classical  and  modern 
schools  who  have  earned  a  certificate  entitling  them  to  enter 
a  university,  but  they  must  also  display  particular  brilliance 
in  mathematics  before  being  permitted  to  enter  as  candidate 
for  the  post  of  forester.  The  career,  although  not  a  very 
lucrative  one,  possesses  a  sort  of  sentimental  charm  for  many 
Germans,  who  have  ever  since  pre-Roman  days  been,  greatly 
attached  to  the  forest. 

One  of  the  conditions  imposed  on  a  candidate  is  that  he 
must  procure  a  written  guarantee  from  his  parents  or  guardians 
that  he  shall  be  furnished  with  sufficient  means  to  sustain 
him  for  at  least  twelve  years  after  his  acceptance  into  the 
service  at  the  age  of  twenty-two  years. 


Model  Foresters  165 

This  formality  complied  with,  the  candidate  must  pass  a 
year  in  the  forest  lodge  of  a  chief  ranger  in  order  that  he  may 
obtain  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  rudiments 
TralnirS'       ^^  forestry  to  enable  him  later  to  follow  intel- 
ligently the  lectures  at  the  technical  forestry 
academy,  which  he  must  then  attend  for  at  least  two  years, 
meanwhile  passing  his  vacations  in  doing  practical  forestry 
work. 

The  two  years  over,  he  must  proceed  to  a  university  for  a 
year  to  study  law  before  undergoing  examination.  On  the 
result  of  this  examination  depends  his  appointment  as  referee, 
or  assistant-surveyor,  in  which  capacity  he  must  serve  two 
years  at  practical  forestry  work  and  then  undergo  another 
examination  before  being  appointed  assessor.  Afterwards 
it  depends  on  the  abilities  of  the  man  himself  how  long  he 
must  wait  for  appointment  as  chief  forester,  which  may  be 
many  years.  He  in  the  meantime  must  content  himself  with 
the  small  fees  he  can  obtain  from  temporary  surveying  work. 
When  his  final  appointment  is  made  his  salary  as  chief  forester 
will  mount  gradually  from  £135  to  £275  a  year,  with  certain 
allowances,  and  the  right  to  shoot  game  for  his  own  table. 

The  lower  ranks  of  Government  foresters  are  filled  by  men 
of  good  elementary  education,  who,  after  serving  two  years 
as  apprentices  under  an  experienced  forester, 
RankT^^      between  the  ages  of  sixteen  and  eighteen,  or 
attending  a  two  years'  course  at  an  ordinary 
forestry  school,  of  which  there  are  a  number  spread  over  the 
country,  must  join  one  of  the  rifle  regiments  for  a  period  of 
three  years'  active  service.     They  then  enter  the  forestry 
service  as  temporary  helpers,   but  are  not  entitled  to  be 
appointed  as  foresters  until  they  have  finished  a  further  period 
of  nine  years  in  the  reserve.     A  number  of  men,  however,  by 
continuing  their  active  service  in  the  Army  for  another  six 
years,  during  which  they  must  attain  the  rank  of  sergeant- 
major,  are  entitled  to  appointments  as  foresters  immediately 
after  leaving  the  Army.     So  many  youn§  men  have  chosen 


166  Germany  of  the  Germans 

forestry  for  their  career  that  candidates  often  have  to  wait 
twenty  years  from  the  time  of  starting  their  apprenticeship 
before  receiving  permanent  appointments  as  foresters. 

The  question  of  the  influence  of  forests  on  the  climate  of  a 

country  has  been  the  subject  of  much  discussion  and  extensive 

scientific  observation  for  the  past  half-century. 

^"?"!"ffL°"  The  result  of  this  has  led  scientists  to  the 
conclusion  that  wooded  lands  exercise  con- 
siderable influence  in  diminishing  extreme  changes  of  tempera- 
ture in  the  immediately  surrounding  country,  but  do  not 
affect  climatic  conditions  over  a  wide  range.  The  soil  of  the 
forest,  owing  to  the  protection  afforded  by  the  trees,  is  cooler 
in  summer  and  warmer  in  winter  than  the  soil  of  open  land. 

Scientists  in  Germany  regard  the  idea  as  erroneous  that  the 
cultivation  of  trees  attracts  rain,  but  they  agree  that  the  forest 
land  retains  humidity  after  rain  for  a  longer  period  than  other 
soil,  as  the  moisture  cannot  evaporate  so  quickly  owing  to  the 
protection  afforded  from  winds  and  the  rays  of  the  sun.  The 
existence  of  trees  also  has  some  effect  in  breaking  the  force  of 
the  wind. 

The  greatest  utility  of  forests,  besides  the  value  of  the  timber 
they  yield,  is  in  the  holding  of  the  soil  firmly  together  and  not 
permitting  it  to  be  gradually  blown  away  by  winds,  as  it 
would  be  if  the  land  were  clear. 

Altogether,  Germans  with  justice  regard  their  forests  as 
a  precious  treasure  of  the  nation,  indispensable,  not  only 
commercially,  but  for  the  opportunities  they  afford  for  the 
study  of  nature. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE  TEMPERANCE  MOVEMENT 

No  one  would  imagine,  from  surface  indications,  that  Germany 

was  troubled  with  the  difficult  problem  of  how  to  deal  with 

the  curse  of  alcoholism. 

Public  ii  is  a  most  peculiar  fact  that,  although 

Drunkenness      •       ^i_       n-       ^  .^.         ■   j.      ■     .-         • 

Rare.  ^^    ^"^    t>ig    German    cities    intoxication    is 

remarkable    by  its  almost  complete  absence 

Irom  the  streets  and  public  places,  yet  the  drunkards'  institutes 

in  charge  of  the  municipal  authorities  and  private  societies 

are  almost  always  full. 

Foreigners  who  have  lived  for  years  in  Berlin,  for  instance, 
will  affirm  with  truth  that  they  have  hardly  ever  seen  a 
drunken  man.  Yet  one  has  only  to  visit  one  of  the  receiv- 
ing stations  for  drunkards  in  the  suburbs  and  one  can  there 
see  daily  at  about  midday  half  a  dozen  men  and  women 
handed  over  by  policemen  in  uniform  who  have  brought  them 
from  police  headquarters.  Some  of  them  are  in  a  state  of 
complete  collapse  suffering  from  alcoholic  poisoning,  others 
recovering  from  a  heavy  bout  of  drinking  and  in  various 
stages  of  jollity  or  remorse  ;  still  others  are  for  the  time  being 
insane  and  require  force  to  keep  them  from  injuring 
themselves  or  others. 

In  the  receiving  station  they  are  taken  charge  of  by  powerful 

warders  and  at  once  inspected  by  the  physicians.     Some  of 

them  need  careful  medical  treatment ;  others 

Homes^*'      ^^^  ^^^^  ^^P*  ^^^^^  ^^^^  h2iVe  recovered  from 

the  effects  of  an  orgy,  while  the  temporarily 

insane  are  placed  in  thickly-mattressed  beds  over  which  is  a 

wooden  framework  covered  with  strong  webbing  through 

which  it  is  impossible  for  them  to  force  themselves.     This 

167 


168  Germany  of  the  Germans 

system  is  used  instead  of  the  old-fashioned  strait  jacket. 
The  patients  are  dressed  alike  in  blue  and  white  striped 
smocks,  but  those  who  are  nearly  cured  are  distinguished  from 
the  others  by  wearing  blue  smocks. 

There  are  distributed  over  Germany  thirty-one  drunkards' 
homes,  with  1,137  beds  (1,062  for  men  and  75  for  women). 
There  are  also  in  the  lunatic  asylums  and  hospitals  many 
thousands  of  people  under  treatment  for  alcoholism.  The 
Poor  Law  authorities  find  it  necessary  to  place  over  a  thousand 
persons  under  guardianship  in  public  institutions  every  year 
in  consequence  of  their  alcoholic  tendency  being  a  danger  to 
the  community  as  well  as  to  their  famiHes,  and  this  number 
would  be  greatly  augmented  but  for  the  fact  that  many  of  the 
poorer  parishes  decline  to  take  action  against  the  drunkards 
for  fear  they  should  become  a  burden  to  the  public  funds. 

In  spite  of  the  spread  of  the  temperance  movement,  official 

statistics  for  the  Empire  show  that  the  number  of  habitual 

drunkards  is  increasing.     In  the  three  years 

Dmnk^rds.      ^^^^  ^^^^  *^  ^^^^'  *^^^^  ^^^^  ^^'^^  persons 
under  treatment  in  hospitals  and  sanatoriums, 

suffering  from  alcoholism,  while  2,556  more  were  confined  in 
lunatic  asylums.  In  the  three  years  from  1899  to  1901,  these 
figures  had  increased  to  65,433  and  7,394  respectively,  an 
increase  of  500  per  cent.,  while  the  population  had  in  the 
meantime  augmented  by  only  33  per  cent.  The  number  of 
cases  of  heart  disease,  rheumatism  and  gout  increased  in  the 
same  period  by  600  per  cent. 

The  municipal  council  of  Leipzig  does  not  believe  in  en- 
forcing abstinence  on  habitual  drunkards,  nor  has  it  any  faith 
in  punishment  by  fine  or  imprisonment.  All  the  cases  of 
chronic  alcoholism  which  come  under  the  notice  of  its  Poor  Law 
department  are  handed  over  to  the  temperance  societies, 
who  endeavour  to  induce  the  victims  to  enter  a  home  for 
drunkards  during  a  certain  period.  The  Municipal  Council 
supports  these  homes  with  an  annual  grant  of  £150.  The 
authorities  find  that  drunkenness  is  the  cause  of  most  of  the 


A    GERMAN   TYPE 


The  Temperance  Movement  169 

poverty  in  the  city.  As  a  rule,  if  it  is  proved  that  a  man  or 
woman  has  brought  himself  or  herself  and  family  to  distress 
through  drink,  assistance  from  the  public  funds  is  refused 
unless  the  drunkard  consents  to  enter  a  drunkards'  home 
for  a  time. 

The  Imperial  Statistical  Department,  in  its  report  on  the 

working  of  the  compulsory  sick  insurance  of  workmen,  points 

out  that  in  1905  there  were  no  fewer  than 

Pubr^^°nd  34,375  cases  of  illness  caused  by  excessive 
drinking  of  alcohol ;  in  1906  there  were  39,226, 
and  in  1907  there  were  45,248.  Taking  the  average  cost  to 
the  insurance  funds  of  a  case  of  sickness,  in  these  three  years 
alcoholism  has  been  responsible  for  the  outlay  of  ;f3 14,777  in 
sick  pay  alone.  In  these  figures  the  sickness  caused  by  the 
effects  of  alcoholism  on  the  nervous  and  digestive  systems 
is  not  taken  into  consideration. 

The  Poor  Law  authorities  calculate  the  cost  to  the  rate- 
payers throughout  the  Empire  in  connection  with  cases  of 
poverty  caused  by  alcohoHsm  at  £2,500,000  annually. 

The   sums   spent   on    alcoholic   liquors   in   Germany   are 

immense,  as  can  be  seen  from  the  figures  of  the  Statistical 

Department,  according  to  which  in  1901,  the 

Traffic  in       latest     returns     available,     no     less     than 

iquors.         ^112,500,000      was      expended      on      beer, 

;f28,000,000  on  spirits  and  liqueurs,  and  ;f25,000,000  on  wines. 

In  the  cities  the  consumption  of  alcoholic  liquors  appears 
to  be  decreasing,  partly  as  a  result  of  the  campaign  which 
has  been  waged  by  temperance  advocates  and  hygienists  in 
pointing  out  the  dangers  attending  excessive  spirit-drinking. 
Most  of  the  newspapers  in  Germany  have  assisted  this  cam- 
paign by  publishing  from  time  to  time  articles  on  the  subject. 
Still,  one  cannot  assert  that  the  opportunities  for  obtaining 
drink  have  diminished,  for  in  Berlin,  for  example,  there  is  a 
wine,  beer  or  spirit  dealer  for  every  157  inhabitants,  including 
men,  women  and  children. 

In  the  country  districts  during  the  harvest,  when  every 


170  Germany  of  the  Germans 

available  hand  is  called  in  to  help,  the  children  working  in 

the  fields  are  often  given  a  glass  of  spirits  to  encourage  them, 

as  their  parents  and  employers  say.     Even 

Country        ^^le  suckling  babies  have   a  lump  of  sugar 

Conditions.  °.  j  .•   j  •  •  r  v 

dipped  m  spirits  and  tied  m  a  piece  of  hnen 

given  them  to  suck  so  as  to  keep  them  quiet.  It  certainly 
has  the  desired  effect,  but  also  produces  other  consequences, 
in  inducing  epilepsy,  nervousness  and  disturbances  of  the 
body  and  brain. 

The  formation  of  great  dairy  companies  which  coUect  the 
milk  from  the  farms  and  send  it  to  the  cities  is  said  by  tem- 
perance advocates  to  have  had  a  notably  deleterious  effect 
on  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  districts.  These  people, 
who  formerly  made  milk  one  of  their  principal  articles  of  diet, 
now  sell  it  for  ready  money,  with  which  they  purchase  beer, 
coffee  and  cheap  spirits,  with  the  result  that  country  children 
instead  of  taking  milk  at  their  meals  drink  coffee,  and  their 
parents  either  drink  beer  or  coffee,  to  which  they  add  a  glass 
of  bad  spirit.  The  recruiting  officers  of  the  Army  have  noted 
in  consequence  a  marked  diminution  in  the  stature  and 
strength  of  the  rural  recruits,  a  much  larger  percentage  of 
whom  are  now  rejected  as  unfit  for  service  than  was  formerly 
the  case.  A  remarkable  fact  is  that  the  country  inns  are 
much  less  frequented  than  in  former  years,  when  they  were 
the  meeting  places  of  the  villagers.  The  reason  for  this  is  that 
the  big  breweries  and  distilleries  have  estabhshed  depositories 
in  practically  every  district,  whence  beer  and  spirits  are 
delivered  direct  into  the  peasants'  houses  on  the  instalment 
system. 

Apart  from  the   fact  that  the  workmen's  trades  unions 

recommend  their  members  to  abstain  from  alcohol  as  a  means 

of  ameliorating  their  lot,   they  also  advise 

Yu*?^*.^"'*      abstinence  as  a  method  of  escaping  taxation. 
Abstention.       ^,      ^  ,  ,  .      .  , 

The  Gewerkveretn,  a  trade-unionist  newspaper, 

recently   published   the   following  notice,    addressed   to   its 

readers,  in  reference  to  the  permit  given  to  wine-growers  to 


The  Temperance  Movement  171 

distil  a  certain  quantity  of  spirits  free  of  duty  :  "  Beer,  spirits, 
coffee,  tea,  tobacco,  cigars,  matches  have  risen  considerably 
in  price  owing  to  the  new  taxation.  The  burden  is  thrown 
on  to  the  poor  in  order  to  protect  the  rich.  We  put  the 
question  to  the  German  workers,  whether  they  are  going  to 
support  this  poHcy  of  favours  to  the  rich.  Under  no  circum- 
stances should  they  do  so.  Many  persons  never  take  alcoholic 
liquor  of  any  kind  ;  but  the  majority  of  German  workers  enjoy 
their  glass  of  healthy  refreshing  beer,  they  Hke  an  occasional 
pipe  or  cigar,  and  find  pleasure  in  a  cup  of  coffee  or  tea  with 
their  families.  They  should  make  up  their  minds  that  they 
will  do  without  spirits.  The  watchword  of  the  future  should 
be  :  *  Not  another  drop  of  fusel.'  Spirits  must  be  avoided 
like  the  plague.  They  have  already  ruined  physically  and 
morally  millions  of  mankind.  Let  the  German  workman 
swear  never  to  touch  them  again.  If  a  comrade  weakens  in 
his  resolve,  let  his  stronger-willed  fellows  give  him  moral 
support.  The  workman's  wife  should  be  able  to  do  much 
good  in  this  direction.  Two  things  will  thus  be  attained : 
the  workman  will  escape  the  baleful  influence  of  bad  spirits 
and  at  the  same  time  frustrate  the  efforts  of  the  rich  to  exploit 
his  weaknesses !  " 

The  Church  authorities,  at  their  meetings,  frequently  discuss 
ways  and  means  of  combating  alcoholism,  but,  although  they 
recommend  pastors  and  Church  officers  to 
In    ti^  show  by  their  example  the  benefits  of  tem- 

perate and  orderly  life,  and  also  recognise  the 
necessity  of  explaining  to  children  the  dangers  of  intemperance, 
the  Church  has  hitherto  not  taken  a  very  active  part  in  the 
fight  against  the  abuse  of  drink. 

The  school  authorities  are  fully  aware  of  the  dangers  arising 
from  the  indulgence  in  alcohoHc  liquors  by  their  pupils,  and 
scholars  of  the  elementary  schools  and  the  lower  classes  of  the 
superior  schools  are  forbidden  to  enter  public-houses  unless 
with  their  parents,  under  penalty  of  punishment.  It  is,  of 
course,  impossible  to  exercise  any  effective  control  so  as  to 


172  Germany  of  the  Germans 

carry  out  this  order,  which  has  consequently  become  a  dead 
letter.  It  is  now  proposed  to  abolish  the  threat  of  punishment 
and  even  to  rescind  the  order  prohibiting  children  from  enter- 
ing public-houses  alone.  In  their  place  it  is  suggested  that 
the  pointing  out  of  the  evils  of  strong  drink  for  children  shall 
form  part  of  the  school  syllabus,  for,  it  is  contended,  education 
on  the  subject  is  likely  to  effect  far  more  good  than 
prohibitions. 

The  German  Society  against  the  Misuse  of  Spirituous 
Liquors  has  been  in  existence  since  1883.  It  does  not  impose 
absolute  abstention  upon  its  members,  but 
Soc'eSs*^*^  endeavours  by  personal  example,  by  advice 
to  school  children,  and  by  lectures  and  publica- 
tions, to  combat  the  evil  of  excessive  drinking.  The  State 
and  municipal  authorities  at  first  regarded  the  influence  of 
the  society  as  against  the  public  interest,  but  at  the  present 
time  its  services  are  recognised  in  every  way.  The  society 
erects  smaU  booths  in  open  spaces  and  opens  shops  for  the  sale 
of  milk  in  busy  streets,  and  in  this  way  offers  a  substitute  for 
the  temptations  of  the  beer  and  spirit  shops. 

The  Good  Templars,  who  are  of  course  absolute  abstainers, 
pay  more  attention  to  individual  cases  of  alcoholism,  and 
have  helped  many  families  to  save  themselves  from  threatened 
ruin  by  taking  charge  of  chronic  drunkards. 

The  Good  Templars  were  the  first  to  take  up  the  total 
abstinence  movement  in  Germany,  where  they  founded  a  lodge 
in  1851.  Many  other  temperance  societies  have,  however, 
since  been  formed.  Pastors,  students,  teachers,  schools, 
women,  railway  men,  church  members,  doctors,  commercial 
men,  artisans,  all  have  their  own  societies,  and  there  is  also 
the  Blue  Cross  Society.  According  to  the  latest  returns,  the 
membership  of  all  these  societies  does  not  exceed  50,000. 
Germans,  as  a  rule,  do  not  pin  their  faith  to  absolute  absti- 
nence. They  found  their  view  on  the  statements  of  prominent 
professors,  who,  while  recommending  moderation,  do  not  think 
total  abstinence  is  necessary. 


The  Temperance  Movement  173 

In  the  course  of  an  extended  inquiry  into  the  causes  of 
alcoholism,  it  has  been  proved  that  when  the  working  man's 

home  accommodation  is  bad  he  always  has 
^^Scoholism/^  ^^^^    inclination    to    seek    more    cheerful 

surroundings,  which  he  generally  finds  in  the 
public-house.  Thus,  the  ill-paid  single  workman  or  shop 
assistant,  compelled  to  seek  lodgings  near  his  work,  is  often 
driven,  perhaps  against  his  own  desire,  to  the  public-house, 
I  because  he  in  many  cases  finds  no  attraction  in  his  miserable 
room.  It  must  be  said  that  of  late  years,  in  most  German 
cities,  the  newly-built  houses  in  the  working-class  districts 
are  airy  and  spacious,  with  every  hygienic  convenience,  and 
it  is  found  that  the  greater  the  space  allowed  in  the  lodging 
the  lower  the  outlay  of  the  working-class  family  for  alcohoHc 
liquors. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

THE  SPORTING  SPIRIT 

Germany  is  still  in  its  infancy  as  a  nation  of  sportsmen,  as 

far  as  the  playing  of  games  is  concerned  ;  but  the  delights  of 

open-air  exercise  are  fast  making  themselves 

^olspo^^     known. 

One  of  the  most  powerful  advocates  for  the 
cultivation  of  physical  exercises,  Count  Posadowsky,  a  former 
Cabinet  Minister,  has  said  :  "  The  future  will  belong  to  the 
nation  which  keeps  itself  most  physically  fit  and  consequently 
most  capable  of  defence.  Those  who  strive  to  maintain  the 
health  and  vigour  of  the  masses  are  fighting  for  the  strength 
and  the  future  of  the  nation." 

He  is  only  the  mouthpiece  of  many  other  leading  men  in 

Germany  who  favour  similar  ideas.     The  Emperor  himself  has 

advised  the  officers  of  the  Army  and  Navy  on 

^MvocaXes^  several  notable  occasions  to  encourage  out- 
door games  among  their  men  as  an  aid  to 
self-reliance  and  discipline.  The  Crown  Prince  also  takes 
every  opportunity  of  encouraging  sport  by  his  presence  at 
games  and  by  founding  and  endowing  prizes.  He  is  himself 
one  of  the  most  assiduous  of  sportsmen.  In  yachting,  riding, 
coaching  and  tennis  he  excels. 

Under  such  distinguished  auspices  it  is  small  wonder  that 
young  and  old,  men  and  women,  are  beginning  to  appreciate 
the  delights  of  open-air  exercise. 

Where  up  till  a  generation  ago  one  of  the  highest  ideals  of 
a  German  who  had  completed  his  military  service  was  to 
acquire  as  much  rotundity  as  possible  and  to  avoid  exercise 
when  not  compulsory,  now  he  is  continually  seeking  sun  and 
air  and  practising  all  kinds  of  bodily  exercise.     Walking, 

174 


J 


The  Sporting  Spirit  175 

mountain-climbing,  riding,  cycling,  tennis,  swimming,  boating, 
and  even  football  and  cricket,  all  have  their  devotees. 

Every  day  brings  fresh  proof  that  the  sporting  spirit  is 

awakening  throughout  the  land.     The  physique  and  stamina 

necessary  to  all  kinds  of  games  are  to  hand : 

^^SuSna^"^  why  should  they  not  be  developed  so  as  to 
permit  the  Germans  to  take  their  proper  place 
in  sport  and  pit  themselves  against  other  athletic  nations  of 
the  world  ? 

Among  old-fashioned  Germans,  however,  the  introduction 
of  foreign  sports  is  decried.  They  are  contented  with  the 
old  German  gymnastics :  excellent  exercises,  extensively 
practised  in  every  part  of  the  Empire  and  strongly  encouraged 
by  the  authorities.  The  extent  to  which  they  are  carried 
on  may  be  gathered  from  the  last  report  of  the  Imperial 
Federation  of  Gymnastic  Societies,  which  numbered  no  fewer 
than  8,600  societies,  with  a  total  membership  of  902,646. 

Most  of  these  societies  are  composed  of  young  working  men, 
and  they  are  controlled  by  the  municipalities.  There  are, 
besides,  many  gymnastic  societies  connected  with  the  schools. 
There  is  no  doubt  this  exercise  does  much  towards  setting  up 
the  youth  of  the  nation,  and  at  the  same  time  accustoms  the 
participants  to  discipline,  for  in  the  gymnasiums  the  discipline 
is  almost  as  strict  as  in  the  Army. 

Every  four  years  a  National  Gymnastic  Tournament  is 

arranged  by  the  central  body  which  controls  all  the  societies 

in  Germany.     To  this  tournament  flock  thou- 

G^^Sts       sands  upon  thousands  of  gymnasts.     At  the 

last   one  held  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  in 

1908,  nearly  50,000  men  participated  in  the  competitions,  and 

these   were   accompanied   by  nearly  250,000  relatives  and 

friends,  who  came  to  cheer  their  favourites.     The  city  was 

at  that  time  so  overcrowded  with  visitors  that  all  the  public 

buildings,  including  the  town  hall  and  the  schools,  had  to  be 

turned  into  dormitories. 

The  spectacle  offered  was  well  worth  going  a  long  way  to 


176  Germany  of  the  Germans 

see.  Besides  the  various  set  competitions  on  apparatus,  in 
which  the  German,  owing  to  his  constant  training,  is  most 
expert,  there  were  many  events  which  are  classed  in  other 
countries  among  athletic  sports,  including  jumping,  running, 
putting  the  shot,  and  throwing  the  ball.  In  these  competi- 
tions no  participant  made  anything  like  a  record,  but  the 
average  performances  were  so  good  that  one  could  not  but 
help  thinking  that  if  the  German  youth  once  takes  up  this  class 
*>  of  sport  seriously,  he  will  surely  make  his  mark,  unless  the 
stiffness  of  the  iron  discipline  to  which  he  is  compelled  to 
submit  by  the  officials  should  prevent  him  from  accomplishing 
the  best  that  is  in  him. 

-  Even  the  smallest  of  children  during  their  play  are  brought 

under  the  direct  influence  of  iron  discipline,  and  are  not 

permitted    to    play    spontaneously.        The 

k  Discioline       teachers,  according  to  the  school  regulations, 

"sv...  *       which  they  follow  to  the  letter,  must  super- 

■%   '  intend  all  the  games  of  the  children,  and  to  the  onlooker  the 

sight  of  a  group  of  little  ones  in  a  playground,  forming  a  ring 

round  a  teacher  and  following  his  or  her  every  movement 

with  the  precision  of  clockwork,  is  a  lesson  in  how  things 

should  not  be  done.     The  poor  little  ones  take  no  pleasure  in 

this  kind  of  play.     It  is  regarded  by  them  as  part  of  their 

lessons.     They  need  no  such  command,  but  love  to  spring 

around  naturally  and  give  off  their  excess  of  animal  spirits. 

Of  course,  the  presence  of  a  teacher  to  prevent  brutality  and 

^      bullying  of  weak  children,  and  also  to  see  that  dangerous  feats 

are  not  undertaken,  is  necessary ;  but  a  continued  direction  of 

the  children's  movements  makes  the  children  old  before  they 

have  grown  up,  and  makes  them  lose  their  sense  of  freedom. 

Participation  in  gymnastic  exercises  is  compulsory  in  all 

public  schools,  except  when  a  doctor  certifies 

^ETerdse^^     that  such  exercises  would  be  dangerous  to 

the  health  of  a   pupil.    A  private  doctor's 

certificate   is   not  accepted  as   sufficient :    the   pupil    must 

undergo  examination  by  the  official  physician.     Anaemia, 


The  Sporting  Spirit  177 

weakness  of  muscles,  or  colds  are  not  regarded  as  sufficient 
excuse. 

With  aU  this  compulsory  exercise,  it  was  found  by  the 
watchful  military  surgeons  who  examine  recruits  for  the  Army 
and  Navy  that  the  physique  of  the  nation  was  tending  to 
decline,  and  their  warnings  caused  fresh  interest  to  be  taken 
in  outdoor  games.  Schoolmasters  were  instructed  to  see 
that  all  their  scholars  took  an  adequate  amount  of  exercise 
and  to  introduce  games  and  sports.  The  teachers,  always 
thorough,  acquired  books  of  rules,  etc.,  and  have  done  a  great 
deal  towards  increasing  the  theoretical  knowledge  of  sport 
among  the  young. 

The  Ministry  of  Education  grants  a  small  sum  every  year 
for  the  purchase  of  prizes  for  pupils  who  have  shown 
remarkable  ability  in  games. 

This,  however,  did  not  help  much  towards  the  introduction 

of  the  competitive  spirit.     The  real  initiators  of  the  growing 

sporting  movement  in  Germany  were  Britons, 

^"thTwr"^^"^  who  chanced  either  to  be  studying  at  the 

German  universities  or  engaged  in  business 

in  some  of  the  larger  cities. 

Twenty  years  ago  there  was  not  an  athletic  sports  federation 
in  existence  in  Germany.  There  were  at  that  time  a  few 
clubs,  mostly  supported  by  British  residents.  Berlin  and 
Hamburg  boasted  of  Association  football  elevens  ;  Frankfort 
and  Hanover  possessed  Rugby  fifteens ;  while  each  of  these 
four  cities  had  a  small  athletic  sports  club — but  that  was  all ! 

At  the  present  day,  there  are  powerful  unions  representing 

lawn  tennis,  swimming,   wrestling,   and  athletic  sports,   all 

of  which  number  in  their  ranks  a  few  members 

Unirns^Formed.  °^    international     reputation,     such     as     O. 

Froitzheim  and  F.  W.  Rahe  in  tennis,  Oscar 

Schiele  in  swimming,  and  Hans  Braun  on  the  running  track. 

These  are  only  mentioned  because  they  are  known  in  England, 

but  there  are  others  equally  good  who  have  not  competed 

abroad. 

XJ— (2391) 


178  Germany  of  the  Germans 

Both  in  the  Army  and  Navy  sports  are  making  headway. 
Besides  gymnastics  with  apparatus,  in  which  the  men  are 
adepts  in  many  cases,  football,  swimming,  tug-of-war  and 
fencing  are  much  in  favour  and  every  year  great  progress  is 
made.  The  authorities  have  even  latterly  so  far  departed 
from  strict  discipline  as  to  allow  soldiers  in  uniform  to  par- 
ticipate in  a  long-distance  marching  competition  in  which 
the  competitors  had  to  carry  a  full  war  kit. 

A  glance  at  the  different  branches  of  sport  and  their  standing 
is  interesting  as  showing  the  progress  made  in  the  last  two 
decades. 

Rowing  was  one  of  the  first  sports  copied  from  the  English, 
and  the  Germans  have  made  rapid  strides  in  the  management 
.  of  boats.     Up  to  a  very  short  time  ago  they 

continued  to  place  their  entire  faith  in  British 
coaches.  Recently,  however,  some  of  the  leading  clubs  felt 
that  they  had  acquired  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  sport,  and 
that  the  principal  German  exponents  were  adequately  ex- 
perienced to  rely  on  their  own  system  of  training.  The 
English  element  has,  therefore,  been  gradually  but  almost 
completely  eliminated  from  the  rowing  clubs  and  a  society 
of  German  rowing  coaches  has  been  founded,  who  place  their 
services  at  the  disposal  of  clubs  all  over  the  country.  The 
effect  of  this  assertion  of  independence  remains  to  be  seen. 
At  any  rate,  it  shows  individuality. 

On  all  the  principal  streams  are  to  be  found  boating  clubs, 
capitally  built  boat-houses,  and  smart  craft  of  the  latest 
models.  Berlin,  Mannheim,  Frankfort,  Cologne,  Bonn, 
Coblence,  Konigsberg,  Stettin,  Hamburg,  Mayence  and 
Ludwigshafen  all  possess  fine  boating-clubs.  According  to 
the  latest  figures  available,  there  are  in  all  286  rowing  clubs 
with  37,038  active  members,  who  have  4,876  craft  of  all  styles 
at  their  dispossJ. 

Yachting  has  become  a  much-favoured  pastime  in  con- 
sequence of  the  Emperor's  patronage  of  the  sport  and  his 
desire  to  e$tablish  a  yachting  week  at  Kiel  that  shall  rival 


The  Sporting  Spirit  179 

Cowes.  In  spite  of  the  existence  of  excellent  German  yachts, 
capable  of  competing  with  the  best  of  other  nations,  the  fact 
.  that  the   Kiel  Yachting  Week  is  conducted 

"^'  practically  by  the  Navy  and  that  the  disci- 
pline of  the  Fleet  is  all-pervading,  has  not  permitted  the 
events  to  attain  that  popularity  among  international  yachts- 
men which  was  expected.  Every  year  the  foreign  entries 
decline  in  number,  until  they  have  almost  disappeared,  and 
yachtsmen  from  other  countries  have  on  various  occasions 
expressed  their  conviction  that  the  Kiel  Week  will  never 
flourish  while  the  discipline  of  the  Navy  is  inflicted  on  the 
participants. 

The  Emperor  has  certainly  done  everything  in  his  power 

to  make  the  Kiel  Yachting  Week  a  success.     He  has  not  only 

founded  handsome  prizes  as  an  attraction  to 

^Efforte'*      foreign  yachtsmen,   but  he  has  continually 

participated  in  the  races  himself  on  board  his 

yacht,   the  Meteor,  with  which  he  has  won  many  prizes. 

He  has  hitherto  confided  the  management  of  his  yacht  to  a 

British  skipper  and  a  British  crew,  but  he  has  decided  that 

the  new  Meteor,  now  being  built,  shall  be  constructed  entirely 

of  German  materials  and  be  manned  by  German  sailors. 

He  feels  it  is  his  duty  to  show  the  nation,  and  more  especially 

the  yachting  section,   that  a  German  vessel  with  German 

sailors  can  hold  its  own  with  those  of  any  other  nation. 

In  the  sailing  of  small  yachts  the  German  yachtsmen  have 
attained  remarkable  skill  and  can  compete  with  the  best 
from  any  other  country.  They  have  excellent  opportunities 
for  this  kind  of  sailing,  owing  to  the  extensive  lakes  spread 
about  the  Empire.  There  are  over  sixty  sailing  clubs  with 
more  than  10,000  members. 

A  motor-boat  club,  formed  in  1907,  has  already  350  mem- 
bers, possessing  a  flotilla  numbering  107  vessels.  Regattas 
have  been  organised  for  this  class  of  vessel  on  Lake  Constance, 
the  lakes  around  Berlin,  on  the  Rhine  and  at  Kiel,  but  until 
now  have  not  secured  many  entries.     Some  of  the  German 


180  Germany  of  the  Germans 

motor-boats  have,  however,  made  names  for  themselves  in 
races  outside  of  Germany,  at  Monaco  and  Nice. 

Outdoor  athletics  are  making  perhaps  more  rapid  progress 
of  late  years  than  any  other  kind  of  sport.     There  are  as  yet 
Athi  f  ^^^y  ^^^   good  sporting   grounds,    and   the 

public  does  not  exhibit  extraordinary  interest, 
but  the  movement  is  growing.     In  1908  there  were  no  fewer 
than  139  athletic  meetings,  comprising  long-distance,  sprint, 
hurdle  and  cross-country  races,  jumping,  etc.     The  competi- 
tors numbered  10,526,  some  of  them  excellent  performers. 
The  only  fault  that  can  be  found  with  the  German  sportsman 
is  his  tendency  to  enter  frivolous  objections  against  the  winners. 
Lawn   tennis,    besides   being   the   oldest   foreign   pastime 
practised  in  Germany,  holds  pride  of  place  in  the  number  ol 
.its  devotees.     The  game  is  not  confined  to 
the  clubs,  which  number  234  with  over  16,000 
members,  but  the  general  public  utilises  the  open  courts, 
which  are  excellent,  very  extensively.     Some  of  the  German 
players  have  acquired  world-wide  reputations. 

Football  is  regarded  by  many  of  the  younger  generation  of 

German  officers  as  one  of  the  best  outdoor  sports  for  cultivating 

the  character  and  courage  of  the  men,  teaching 

^°Cricket^"^     them  to  combine  and  to  sink  personality,  while 

at  moments  calling  for  the  quickest  decision 

and  initiative.     In  virtually  every  regiment  of  the  Army  the 

game  has  been  introduced.     It  is  also  widely  practised  both 

winter  and  summer  in  the  vicinity  of  every  big  city.  Some  of  the 

clubs  have  taken  part  in  international  matches,  but  hitherto 

with  not  much  success.     There  are  433  Association  clubs  with 

24,462  members,  and  fifteen  Rugby  clubs  with  1,104  members. 

Cricket  has  not  yet  made  a  strong  appeal  to  German  youth, 

but  many  clubs  are  in  existence. 

^  In  cycling  Germany  has  always  been  able 

to  hold  her  own.  The  clubs  alone  have 
115,507  members.  Everybody  cycles.  The  splendid  roads 
appear  to  be  specially  made  for  the  sport 


The  Sporting  Spirit  181 

Skating  is  more  or  less  natural  to  every  German.  The 
sharp  cold  winters  usually  experienced  afford  ample  oppor- 
tunities to  acquire  the  art.  There  are  many  skating  clubs, 
which  usually  practise  fancy  skating. 

Swimming,  also,  is  learned  by  nearly  every  man.  All 
soldiers  are  marched  down  to  an  open-air  bathing-place  at 
least  once  a  week,  and  almost  invariably  learn  to  swim  while 
with  their  regiments.  The  lakes  also  afford  capital  oppor- 
tunities for  practice.  Municipal  baths  are  not  very  numerous, 
but  the  city  authorities  almost  always  arrange  facihties  for 
bathing  in  the  rivers.  Swimming  races  are  frequently  held 
by  the  212  clubs  among  their  26,259  members. 

Golf  has  only  been  introduced  during  the  past  ten  years. 
Clubs  aie  now  being  formed  in  many  districts,  where  British 

n+h  <;  rf  professionals  give  instruction  in  the  game. 
A  golf  association  has  been  founded,  which 
fourteen  clubs  have  joined,  and  the  championship  of  Germany 
is  played  for  every  year. 

Fencing  is  not  greatly  practised  outside  of  the  Army  and  the 
universities.  There  are,  however,  nearly  fifty  fencing  clubs 
in  the  Empire.     The  Italian  method  is  generally  adopted. 

Motoring  is  extensively  patronised,  not  only  for  racing,  but 
for  touring.  There  are  twenty-eight  motor  clubs  with  4,175 
members. 

Ballooning  has  also  taken  hold  as  a  sport,  more  especially 
since  Germany  has  made  such  progress  with  steerable 
airships.  The  nine  existing  aeronautical  clubs  comprise  2,775 
members. 

Horse-racing  does  not  occupy  much  attention  among  the 

working  classes.     Betting   is   prohibited,  except   by   means 

of  the  totalisator,  which  is  controlled  on  all 

^Be*tthfg°^      courses  by  the  Government,   and  from  the 

gross  takings  of  which  a  large  percentage  is 

deducted  for  public  purposes. 

The  Government,  however,  provides  a  method  of  gambling 
in  the  public  lotteries  and  also  by  authorising  lotteries  for  all 


182  Germany  of  the  Germans 

sorts  of  purposes,  a  percentage  of  the  receipts  going  to  the 
public  exchequer  in  the  way  of  stamp  duties. 

The  German  has  not  hitherto  written  many  stirring  pages 

in  the  history  of  outdoor  sporting  games,  but  in  his  own  way 

of    amusing   himself   he    performs   wonders. 

AmuseriSits  ^^*^"  during  his  holidays,  without  any 
training,  he  will  start  off  with  several  com- 
panions, perhaps  old  Army  comrades,  and  march,  with  his 
sack  full  of  clothes  and  food  on  his  back,  twenty-five  to 
thirty-five  miles  a  day  for  a  week,  putting  up  at  village  inns 
at  night  and  probably  playing  at  nine-pins  for  a  couple  of 
hours  before  retiring. 

This  is  often  the  method  adopted  by  groups  of  members 
of  working  men's  gymnastic  societies,  who,  as  a  rule,  have  not 
the  wherewithal  to  go  to  a  watering-place  or  mountain  resort. 

Very  often,  too,  the  national  military  spirit  asserts  itself  long 
after  men  have  left  the  Army.  One  can  see  parties  of  men 
past  middle  age  following  the  Army  manoeuvres  and  keeping  up 
with  the  active  troops  in  a  remarkable  manner,  at  the  expense 
of  a  deal  of  perspiration  certainly,  but  always  on  hand  to 
watch  interesting  operations,  which  they  discuss  among 
themselves  with  the  greatest  interest. 

Shooting,  also,  is  a  pastime  to  which  much  time  is  devoted. 
Game  is  very  plentiful  and  licences  are  cheap.  Besides  the 
chase,  a  large  number  of  rifle  clubs  provide 
opportunities  to  display  marksmanship.  The 
last  statistics  enumerate  752  rifle  clubs  with  24,310  members, 
but  there  are  undoubtedly  many  more.  Rifle  contests  are 
very  frequent  all  over  the  country.  The  Imperial  Chancellor, 
Herr  von  Bethmann-HoUweg,  recently  issued  a  decree  accord- 
ing to  all  the  societies  of  veterans  the  right  to  utilise  the 
military  ranges  for  rifle  practice,  and  granting  them  the  right 
to  draw  rifles  of  the  most  recent  pattern  from  the  Army 
arsenals  for  a  very  small  fee.  The  societies  are  also  provided 
with  ammunition  from  the  Army  stores  at  cost  price.  In  this 
way  the  members  of  the  societies,  most  of  whom  are  still  liable 


The  Sporting  Spirit  183 

to  be  called  upon  for  service  in  the  reserve,  are  enabled  to 
maintain  constant  shooting  efficiency.  As  there  are  between 
two  and  three  million  men  belonging  to  these  societies,  the 
Government  has,  at  small  expense,  thus  secured  a  body  of 
trained  men,  who  are  ready  at  any  moment  to  take  their 
places  in  the  ranks  with  very  little  necessity  for  further 
training. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  most  interesting  forms  of  amusement 

of  the  average  skilled  city  artisan  and  small  shopkeeper  in 

summer  is  the  renting  of  a  small  plot  of  land 

Colon?s        ^^  *^^  suburbs  of  the  town.     Many  thousands 

of  these  plots  are  let  round  Berlin  at  a  nominal 

rent   by  the   building   companies   while   they   are   awaiting 

development.     Thither  the  artisan  goes  with  his  family  every 

Sunday,  taking  their  food  with  them,  and  all  work  together 

to  erect  the  hut  which  is  to  be  their  Sunday  home.     It  is 

regarded  as  a  matter  of  pride  that  no  one  outside  of  the 

family  shaU  assist  in  planning  or  erecting  the  hut.     As  soon 

as  it  is  finished,  a  flag  is  run  up  on  a  small  mast,  and  the 

summer  home  is  christened  with  a  fine-sounding  name.     Then 

the  family  sets  to  work  at  gardening. 

Sometimes  there  are  as  many  as  5,000  of  these  plots  in  the 
same  vicinity,  and  the  sight  with  all  the  flags  flying  is  very 
picturesque.  Enormous  interest  is  taken  by  the  authorities 
in  this  movement,  which  is  considered  to  have  done  a  great 
deal  to  correct  the  tendency  to  intemperance.  The  Empress 
gives  prizes  every  year  for  the  best  hut  in  the  various  districts, 
and  church  societies  also  encourage  the  idea. 


CHAPTER  XX 

WOMAN'S   POSITION   AND   PROSPECTS 

Perhaps  the  two  qualities  that  can  with  the  greatest  truth 
be  ascribed  to  the  German  woman  are  tidiness  and  thrift. 
Whether  she  be  the  wife  of  the  rich  country 
0°1T  ^*      noble,  the  wealthy  manufacturer,  the  com- 
fortable  official,    or  the   working  man,   she 
always   possesses   these   valuable   endowments.     Others,    of 
course,  she  has,  but  they  are  so  varied  in  the  different  spheres 
of  life,  in  country  and  in  town,  that  they  cannot  be  described 
in  general. 

There  is  a  stratum  of  society,  even  in  Germany,  where  the 
women  as  well  as  the  men  devote  themselves  to  amusements, 
the  search  for  sensation,  extravagant  dress,  and  all-round 
display ;  but  this  is  to  be  found  only  in  the  big  cities,  and 
the  class  is  very  limited,  although  from  its  presence  at  every 
public  place  of  entertainment  it  is  thought  to  be  much  more 
extensive  than  it  is. 

The  Empress  is  an  excellent  example  of  the  German  woman 

— with  simple  tastes  in  all  directions,  a  good 

Empress's       housewife,   religious,   modest,   yet  possessing 

many  accomplishments. 

The  real  German  woman  is  to  be  found  in  her  home,  where 

she  devotes  herself  to  her  usually  large  family. 

As  a  housewife  she  can  without  doubt  take  her  place  with 
any  other  woman  in  the  world.  She  is  absolutely  devoted 
to  her  home  and  her  children,  and  always  contrives,  in 
whatever  station  she  finds  herself,  to  live  within  the  family 
income. 

It  is  quite  an  event  in  the  life  of  the  ordinary  married  woman 
for  her  to  go  to  a  restaurant  to  dine,  even  when  she  lives  in 

184 


THE    KAISERIN   AND    HER   DAUGHTER 


•        OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

Of 


Woman*s  Position  and  Prospects        185 

town,  after  the  first  few  years  of  marriage.    The  single  girls 
and  younger  married  women  are,  on  the  other  hand,  devoted 

to  out-of-door  life  and  to  the  concert  and 
^  ^Uf™^"^  theatre.     As  a  rule,  however,  they  are  satisfied 

if  their  sweethearts  or  husbands  take  them 
to  a  beer-garden,  a  concert,  a  popular  cheap  performance  at 
the  theatre,  or  to  the  circus,  which  is  in  great  renown  in 
Germany. 

Usually  very  modest  in  dress,  and  with  apparently  little 
conception  of  colour-effects,  the  German  girl  and  woman 
do  not  always  take  the  place  that  rightly  belongs  to  them 
in  the  matter  of  looks.  There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that 
they  possess,  as  a  rule,  good  complexions  and  physical 
development,  although  in  too  many  cases  they  destroy  the 
effect  by  copying  the  stiff  walk  of  the  soldiers. 

The  education  of  the  German  woman  is,  as  a  rule,  fairly 
thorough.     Those  of  the  working  classes  naturally  do  not 

generally  pass  beyond  the  stage  of  elementary 
^Edicafed^^      school,   whence   they  have   to  turn  out   at 

fourteen  years  of  age  to  earn  a  living  or  to 
help  their  parents  keep  the  house.  Even  of  this  class,  how- 
ever, some  attend  the  continuation  schools.  The  middle  and 
wealthy  classes  usually  carry  their  studies  farther  and  are  in 
some  cases  as  far  advanced  as  their  brethren  who  attend  the 
classical  schools  and  the  universities. 

All  of  them,  to  whatever  class  of  society  they  belong,  are 
adepts  in  housekeeping,  as,  besides  the  practical  instruction 
their  mothers  insist  on  at  home,  there  are  admirable  special 
classes  in  housework  connected  with  all  schools.  Well 
frequented  household  economy  schools  for  women  have  been 
established  in  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Baden  and  Wiirttemberg, 
where  girls  and  women  receive  instruction  in  cooking,  preserv- 
ing, washing,  ironing,  house-cleaning,  gardening,  poultry,  bee 
and  small  animal  breeding,  milking,  handwork,  clothes-cutting, 
gymnastics  and  singing,  botany,  chemistry,  hygiene,  and 
household  book-keeping.    Even  at  the  theatre  and  concert 


186  Germany  of  the  Germans 

it  is  a  common  sight  to  see  German  girls  and  women  knitting 
stockings  or  doing  crochet  work. 

The  accomplishments  of  the  German  woman  outside  of  the 

working  class  are  very  varied.     Singing  and  piano-playing 

are  regarded  as  necessary  acquirements,  and 

best  opera  merely  uses  it  in  her  home  or  at 
the  houses  of  friends. 

Some  kinds  of  sport  are  much  cultivated  by  the  women  of 
the  leisured  classes,  tennis,  swimming,  cychng  and  skating 
being  very  general. 

Until  a  girl  is  engaged  to  be  married,  she  is  kept  under  the 
strictest  supervision  by  her  parents,  and  treated  almost  as  a 
child.  Her  opportunities  for  intercourse  with  boys  and  men 
are  very  restricted. 

A  girl  cannot  marry  without  her  parents'  consent,  and  even 
with  it,  if  she  is  a  minor  at  her  marriage,  she  remains  under 
the  legal  guardianship  of  her  parents,  although  the  duty  is 
usually  transferred  to  her  husband. 

The  choice  of  a  husband  is  almost  invariably  made  by  the 

parents,  who  in  the  majority  of  cases  have  taken  care  to 

ascertain   full   details   of   the   young   man's 

Husband  *      fortune   or   prospects.     There   is   very    little 

sentiment  connected   with  the   arrangement 

of  an  engagement,  but  when  it  has  been  entered  into  it  is 

considered  almost  as  binding  as  a  marriage,  and  may  not  be 

broken  with  impunity.     The  young  couple  are  then  left  to 

become  better  acquainted  in  the  usually  short  interval  before 

the  solemnization  of  the  wedding,  which  in  Germany  is  a  civil 

contract,  although  the  majority  of  people  insist  on  the  church 

ceremony  afterwards. 

Notwithstanding  her  undoubted  qualities  in  many  direc- 
tions, the  German  wife  does  not  seem  to  be  gifted  with  a  great 
amount  of  self-reliance.  Perhaps  this  lack  is  a  legacy  from 
the  period,  not  so  long  since,  when  she  was  considered  in  every 
way  inferior  to  the  men.    Even  at  the  present  day  it  is  a  very 


Woman*s  Position  and  Prospects         187 

rare  occurrence,  although  she  may  possess  every  aptitude,  for 
her  to  be  permitted  to  share  in  the  business  cares  of  her 
husband,  who  would  only  as  a  very  last  resource  turn  to  her 
for  counsel. 

Only  with  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century  did  the 
German  woman  awake  to  a  sense  of  her  own  dignity.     She 

had  until  then  been  looked  down  upon  by  her 
Recent         j^^.^  ^^^  master — for  such  in  verity  he  was — 

as  an  inferior  being.  Her  rights  were  limited  ; 
her  duties  manifold.  At  the  present  day,  when  most  of  her 
restrictions  have  been  removed,  she  still  remains  the  unex- 
acting  and  often  too  self-sacrificing  being  she  has  always  been. 
She  has  not  quite  learned  that  she  is  the  equal  of  man,  although 
practically  all  the  professions  have  been  thrown  open  to  her, 
and  she  is  placed  on  a  theoretically  equal  standing  with  the 
men  students  at  nearly  all  the  universities. 

When,  however,  it  is  considered  that  until  January  1st, 
1900,  the  rights  of  woman  in  Germany  were  restricted  to  a 

scarcely  conceivable  degree,  it  will  be  under- 
R  ^S^*^*^         stood  why  she  has  not  yet  taken  advantage 

to  the  fullest  extent  of  the  liberties  which  have 
since  been  accorded  to  her.  Till  that  date,  according  to  the 
law  of  most  of  the  Federal  States,  a  German  woman  could 
not  act  as  head  of  the  family,  even  though  her  husband  was 
dead.  She  was  only  permitted  to  a  limited  extent  to  exercise 
the  duties  of  a  guardian.  Without  the  express  permission 
of  a  court  of  law  she  could  not  begin  legal  proceedings  of  any 
kind.  She  was  not  allowed  to  serve  as  legal  witness  at  a 
marriage  and  could  not  sign  her  name  as  a  witness  to  a  will. 
However,  women  who  were  engaged  independently  in  business 
were  not  subjected  to  all  these  restrictions. 

In  most  instances  all  the  real  and  personal  property  of  a 
woman  on  her  marriage  passed  under  the  direct  control  of  her 
husband,  although  he  was  forced  in  the  case  of  real  property 
to  obtain  her  consent  if  he  wished  to  dispose  of  or  mortgage  it. 
At  the  present  day  all  this  is  changed.     A  married  woman 


188  Germany  of  the  Germans 

may  enter  into  contracts  in  her  own  right.  She  must,  however > 
submit  to  her  husband's  wishes  as  to  residence.  She  is  bound 
to  look  after  the  household  and  to  assist  in 
Effected^  ^^^  husband's  business,  if  such  assistance  is 
necessary  and  usual  in  the  class  to  which  the 
persons  belong.  In  return  she  has  the  right  to  be  kept  by 
her  husband  according  to  his  means,  and  in  case  of  his  neglect 
she  may  take  legal  means  to  attach  the  necessary  money 
for  the  purpose  from  his  salary  or  income.  She  also  retains 
all  rights  over  her  own  real  and  personal  property  unless  the 
marriage  contract  expressly  stipulates  otherwise  ;  but  she 
may  be  prevented  by  her  husband  from  disposing  of  it  in 
an  extravagant  manner.  Her  separate  earnings  are  her  own 
property  to  dispose  of  as  she  desires,  but  she  must,  if  able, 
support  her  husband  in  case  of  necessity  so  as  to  prevent  him 
becoming  a  public  charge. 

Formerly  only  the  father  had  legal  authority  over  his 
children,  but  now  both  parents  are  placed 

^^Equar'^     on  an  equal  footing. 

Women  have  also  been  accorded  more  free- 
dom in  regard  to  politics,  as  they  may  now  attend  political 
meetings,  which  was  forbidden  until  a  few  years  ago.  They  may 
not  vote,  however,  and  cannot  be  elected  to  a  public  office, 
except  as  guardians  of  the  poor  and  orphans  in  some  districts. 

The  Imperial  statistical  office  has  recently  issued  a  pamphlet 
dealing  with  women's  organisations  in  Germany.  The  figures 
given  do  not  indicate  any  formidable  movement  in  favour  of  an 
extension  of  political  rights  to  the  sex.  The  Society  for 
Securing  Votes  for  Women  numbers  only  2,242  women  and 
216  men  in  its  membership.  There  are  also  a  few  independent 
groups  of  women  who  have  the  same  object  in  view.  The 
Women's  Navy  League  and  the  Women's  Colonial  League 
are  the  only  other  organisations  of  women  with  any  sug- 
gestion of  a  political  object.  The  first  of  these  comprises 
5,500  members  and  helps  considerably  in  spreading  the 
propaganda  for  a  great  navy. 


Woman's  Position  and  Prospects         189 

There  exists,  however,  a  large  number  of  women's  societies 
for  social  and  religious  work.  The  Union  of  Women's  Societies, 
which  dates  from  1894,  comprises  over  830 
Social^Societies  ^^P^^^^^  bodies,  with  a  total  membership  of 
over  200,000.  They  are  making  rapid  pro- 
gress in  influencing  the  method  of  carrying  out  the  Poor  Law, 
whose  administration,  however,  is  almost  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  men,  who  have  hitherto  offered  strenuous  opposition 
to  the  selection  of  women  guardians. 

Other  important  bodies  of  women  devote  their  energies 

to  church  and  charitable  work,  among  the  chief  organisations 

being  the  Red  Cross  Society,  with  452,000 

Q^  .^^.  members,  the  German  Evangelical  Women's 
Union,  with  182,500  members,  the  Catholic 
Women's  Society  and  the  German  Federation  for  the  Improve- 
ment of  Women's  Clothing,  the  German  Union  for  the 
Protection  of  Mothers  and  the  Evangelical  Girls'  Federation. 

Women's  professional  societies  are  represented  by  the 
Society  for  the  Welfare  of  Teachers,  with  38,000  female 
members  ;  the  General  Women  Teachers'  Society  with  23,000  ; 
the  Catholic  Women  and  Giri  Clerks'  Society  with  22,000 ; 
the  Catholic  Women  Workers'  Society  with  12,000 ;  the 
Commercial  Women's  Society  with  10,000  ;  and  several  others. 

Social  work  societies  exist  for  the  propagation  of  abstinence, 
for  the  legal  protection  of  women,  and  for  actresses  and  female 
theatrical  employees. 

Charitable  societies  comprise  the  Deaconesses'  Union, 
the  Girls'  Homes  Society,  and  many  others.  Educational 
work  is  carried  on  by  the  Froebel  Society,  the  Women's 
Educational  Society,  and  the  Society  for  Women's  Schools  of 
Household  Economy. 

Altogether  over  a  million  women  are  organised  in  one  way 
or  another,  and,  although  they  have  hitherto  left  politics  alone, 
the  Government  keeps  the  future  in  view,  as  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  it  has  begun  tQ  GOUnt  the  strength  of  existing  women's 
societies. 


190  Germany  of  the  Germans 

Women  are  becoming  more  prominent  in  trade  and  com- 
merce of  late  years.  The  last  figures  available,  those  for 
December,  1907,  show  that,  exclusive  of 
PromSent  domestic  servants,  over  5,700,000  women 
in  Trade.  were  employed  in  agriculture,  industries  and 
commerce.  Of  these  no  fewer  than  2,720,000 
were  engaged  in  agriculture,  1,577,000  in  factories,  512,000 
as  shopwomen  in  trade  (including  the  beer  and  wine  trades, 
where  they  work  as  waitresses,  etc.),  and  the  remainder  as 
clerks,  etc.  There  were  also  1,234,121  women  in  business  for 
themselves. 

The  liberal  professions  present  many  difficulties  for  women  ; 
but,  in  spite  of  these,  there  are  at  the  present  moment  between 
fifty  and  sixty  women  doctors  in  independent  practice  in 
Germany,  and  many  more  are  studying  medicine  and  walking 
the  hospitals.  In  several  municipalities  the  school  and  police 
authorities  have  engaged  lady  doctors.  Five  lady  jurists 
have  been  admitted  to  the  bar.  At  Mannheim  Commercial 
High  School  a  lady  has  recently  been  appointed  to  a  profes- 
sorial chair — the  first  in  this  country  to  be  occupied  by  a 
woman.  Lady  librarians  are  rather  numerous,  counting  206, 
and  are  constantly  increasing  in  numbers.  In  Berlin  a  lady 
architect  enjoys  considerable  practice  and  Hamburg  possesses 
a  lady  engineer. 

In  the  Government  service  there  are  also  many  women 
employed,  more  especially  in  the  telephone  and  telegraph 
departments.  Recently  a  new  departure  has  been  made 
by  engaging  female  searchers  in  the  police  and  customs 
service. 

This  flocking  of  women  into  trades  is  not  altogether  attri- 
butable to  the  greater  freedom  conferred  on  the  sex.  Much  of 
it  is  occasioned  by  the  ever-increasing  cost 
to^  Work^^^^  ^^  articles  of  necessity,  which  have  so  risen 
in  price  that  the  wages  of  the  working  man 
do  not  suffice  for  the  needs  of  his  family,  and  the  wife  is 
virtually  compelled  to  go  out  to  work.     When  the  fact  is 


Woman's  Position  and  Prospects         191 

mentioned  in  this  connection  that  according  to  the  Govern- 
ment's returns  the  income  of  51  per  cent,  of  the  men  in 
Germany  does  not  reach  £45  annually  and  of  another  40 
per  cent,  ranges  between  £45  and  £150,  the  need  for  the  women 
to  turn  out  is  quite  apparent. 

A  few  figures  gathered  by  the  Municipal  Statistical  Office 
in  Berlin  in  the  course  of  an  inquiry  as  to  women's  earnings 
tell  a  very  vivid  tale.  Women  employed  in  the  metal  and 
machine  trades  were  found  to  average  £19  3s.  a  year  ;  packers, 
£20  17s.  ;  silver  polishers,  £26  to  £32  10s.  ;  textile  workers, 
£27  12s.  ;  seamstresses  in  leather,  £13  10s.  to  £30  ;  workers  in 
chocolate  factories,  £22  5s.  to  £30  ;  mantle  sewers,  £19;  boys' 
suit  makers,  £15,  and  glove-makers,  £20.  These  were  all 
grown  women  and  not  girls. 

A  very  useful  service  is  being  rendered  to  women  by  the 
Society  for  the  Instruction  and  Study  of  Women,  which  has 
opened  in  virtually  every  large  city  an 
^odSv"^  information  office,  where  women  may  apply 
for  information  as  to  any  trade  or  calling 
which  they  desire  to  take  up.  The  directress  of  each  informa- 
tion office,  on  the  receipt  of  an  inquiry  with  return  postage 
paid,  gives  hints  as  to  where  instruction  in  the  branch  selected 
may  be  had,  the  cost  and  length  of  time  for  learning,  the 
prospects  of  receiving  positions,  and  the  salary  to  be  expected. 

It  was  only  in  the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century  that 
the  higher  education  of  woman  received  any  serious  attention. 
In  1894  the  first  public  schools  were  founded 
Education  which  permitted  girls  to  study  for  matricula- 
tion. Then  followed,  some  years  later,  the 
promotion  of  the  girls'  high  schools  to  the  same  standing  as 
those  for  boys.  Now  virtually  all  the  universities  admit 
female  undergraduates,  but  women  are  not  permitted  as  yet 
to  occupy  the  highest  teaching  posts  or  professorial  chairs. 

There  is  at  present  a  movement  towards  raising  the  status 
of  the  nursing  profession,  which  has  hitherto  not  attracted 
the  women  of  the  better  classes. 


192  Germany  of  the  Germans 

The  conditions  prevailing  in  the  nursing  profession  in 
Germany  are  probably  accountable  for  this.  The  nurse  in  the 
public  hospital  has  not  hitherto  occupied  the  high  social 
standing  she  deserves.  She  has  rather  been  looked  upon  as 
a  domestic  servant,  and  consequently  highly-educated  women 
would  not  take  up  the  profession.  The  work,  too,  has  been 
made  much  more  severe  for  her  than  in  other  countries,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  emoluments  are  low.  The  better  class  of 
women  among  the  Protestants  go  into  deaconesses'  homes 
or  become  Sisters  of  the  Red  Cross,  while  the  Catholic  women 
become  nuns,  and  in  this  way  they  ensure  themselves  far  more 
respect  than  as  ordinary  nurses.  There  are  20,000  nuns, 
14,000  deaconesses,  and  7,000  other  nursing  sisters  in  the 
German  Empire. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

LITERARY  SEARCHINGS 

It  can  scarcely  be  said  with  any  truth  of  Germany  that  there 

is  a  real  school  or  style  of  literature  at  the  present  day.   Much 

writing  is  done,  many  books  are  read,  each 

S  hcT^l^^      author  says  what  he  has  to  say  in  a  more  or 

less  interesting  way,  and — makes  as  much  as 

he  can  out  of  his  work. 

To  assert  that  all  writers,  without  exception,  have  only  a 
material  end  in  view  would,  of  course,  be  going  much  too 
far.  There  are  naturally  many  who  imagine  that  they  have 
a  mission  to  tell  something  to  the  world,  and  try  to  fulfil  their 
task  ;  but  these  often  find  that  they  have  not  expressed  their 
thoughts  in  a  way  that  is  appreciated  by  the  public. 

The  direction  of  modern  German  literature  is  not  yet  fully 

decided  upon.     All  kinds  of  currents  run  through  the  stream. 

The    influence    of    Goethe,    Schiller,    Heine 

Undecided       ^^^  Nietzsche  holds  much  sway.     The  works 

of  Emile  Zola  are  taken  in  some  quarters 

as  models.     Ibsen  has  had  considerable  effect.     Tolstoi  has 

many  followers.     Germany  is,  in  fact,  with  the  help  of  all 

these  masters,  seeking  to  work  out  a  Hterary  tendency. 

In  the  mass  of  books  offered  to  the  German  public  in 

recent    times   there   is  certainly   much    that    is    unworthy 

and  banal,  sensational  and  unnatural ;    but 

^Unwortf  *^  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^^°  ^^^^  ^^^*  ^^  interesting  and 
well  written. 

Romantic  novels  take  a  leading  place  in  public  favour, 
and  are  turned  out  by  hundreds.  Despite  the  feebleness 
of  the  greater  proportion  of  these  works,  they  are  eagerly 
snapped  up.  In  their  general  character,  although  there  are 
brilliant  exceptions,  they  display  a  tendency  to  gross  exag- 
geration in  the  direction  of  reahsm  and  to  the  destruction  of 

193 

13— {2391) 


194  Germany  of  the  Germans 

idealism.  Most  of  the  writers  have  drawn  their  original 
inspiration  from  French,  Russian  and  Norwegian  sources  ; 
but  it  must  be  said  that  their  efforts  to  walk  in  the  same  lines 
as  their  masters  are  not  very  successful.  Their  so-called 
realism  nearly  always  overflows  into  impossible  distortion. 
There  are,  however,  now  signs  of  a  better  conception  of  nature 
among  the  leading  writers  of  romance  and  thus  there  is  hope 
for  better  things  in  store. 

The  authors  in  many,  if  not  most,  instances  make  the 

mistake  of  dealing  with  problems  which  interest  their  own 

little  sphere,  but  do  not  affect  the  rest  of  the 

"probkml"^  world  one  atom.  Some  of  the  many  books 
of  this  kind  are  read  by  the  general  public 
from  a  feeling  of  curiosity,  but  that  is  all.  The  solution  of  the 
problems  dealt  with  does  not  lead  anywhere  in  the  world  at 
large.  The  modern  reader  is  more  interested  in  the  move- 
ments going  on  around  him,  in  the  strivings  towards  advance- 
ment of  the  millions  who  form  the  various  great  classes  which 
make  up  the  world.  The  exotic  cliques  so  often  dealt  with 
in  books  offer  him  only  a  momentary  and  undesirable 
distraction. 

Until  late  in  the  eighties,  German  modern  literature  was, 
with  very  few  exceptions,  worthy  of  very  little  notice.  Most 
of  the  productions  were  very  poor  imitations  of  old  classics. 
The  few  authors  who  showed  any  signs  of  individuality  were 
lost  in  the  crowd.  Ernst  von  Wildenbruch,  Wilhelm  Busch, 
Theodor  Fontane  and  Wilhelm  Raabe  were  among  the 
limited  number  of  stars  visible  in  the  literary  firmament. 

Then  literature  began  to  emerge  from  the  depths  of  deca- 
dence into  which  it  had  sunk  and  to  shake  itself  free  of  the 
weeds  which  had  coiled  themselves  around  it. 
%*epthr*      "^^^  public  demanded  something  fresh  and 
tangible,    and    received    in    response    many 
realistic  works,  which  soon,  however,  went  beyond  the  bounds. 

The  literary  market  was  flooded  with  problem  novels, 
dealing  with  medical  and  psychological  studies,  many  of  them 


Literary  Searchings  195 

to  the  utmost  degree  crude  and  in  some  instances  absolutely 
repulsive. 

The  new  movement,  however,  produced  two  men  at  least 

who  stand  out  above  all  others  at  the  present  moment  in 

German  literature — ^namely,  Gerhard  Haupt- 

Result  of  the    ^^^^^    ^nd    Hermann    Sudermann,    both    of 

New  Movement.  n  ,• 

whom  are  dramatists  as  well  as  novehsts. 

Sudermann  is  probably  the  best  story-teller  in  modem 
German  Hterature,  and  has  well  earned  the  laurels  with  which 
he  has  been  crowned  both  for  his  novels  and  his  plays.  He 
leaned  towards  the  modernist  school  some  time  before  the  new 
movement  took  definite  shape.  "  lolanthe's  Hochzeit  "  is 
one  of  his  masterpieces,  but  in  nearly  all  of  his  works  he  reaches 
a  very  high  standard  of  merit.  Some  of  them  indicate  that 
he  sits  at  the  feet  of  the  great  French  romancists,  but  what 
he  has  learnt  from  them  he  has  known  how  to  fit  in  with  his 
own  ideas,  which  are  abundant  and  varied. 

Gerhard  Hauptmann  is  more  of  a  dramatist  than  a  novelist, 
and  his  many  excellent  plays  are  dealt  with  in  connection 
with  the  progress  of  the  German  theatre. 

^"^  Authl^rs!*^"  Several  other  authors  soon  found  consider- 
able fame  after  the  ball  of  the  modern 
movement  had  been  set  rolling. 

Arno  Holz  was  one  of  the  first  to  fall  into  line  with  the  new 
school.  He  has  had  considerable  success  with  some  of  his 
novels,  but  he  is  much  more  at  home  in  his  lyrics,  which  give 
evidence  of  great  power. 

Johannes  Schlaf  is  also  a  modernist,  and  one  of  the  ultra- 
realistic  school.  He  is  poet  as  well  as  novelist,  and  has  also 
written  drama,  but  it  is  as  novelist  that  he  has  made  his  name. 

Michael  Georg  Conrad  was  the  leader  of  the  Southern  German 
modern  literary  revolt.   His  ideas  are  extremely 

"^^^RevolT^^"  advanced.  This  is  shown  in  the  many  novels 
and  romances  he  has  written,  most  of  them 
dealing  with  imaginary  future  states  and  human  conditions. 

Among  writers  of  the  less  modem  school  Wilhelm  Raabe 


196  Germany  of  the  Germans 

secured  a  considerable  army  of  followers.  His  works  are 
imitations  of  Dickens.  He  shows  extraordinary  versatility 
in  his  productions,  which,  although  full  of  pessimistic  thought, 
are  crammed  with  good-humour. 

The  recently  deceased  Ernst   von  Wildenbruch  enjoyed 

widespread  popularity.     He  was  a  very  prolific  author  of 

epics  find  lyrics,  novels  and  plays,   several 

^Writer^^       of   which   have   been   translated   into   other 

languages. 

The  late  Georg  Ebers,  whose  romances  deal  mostly  with 

Egyptian  themes,  was  and  still  is  widely  read. 

Theodor  Fontane  wrote  many  vigorous  romantic  novels, 
which  are  still  read  with  the  greatest  interest. 

Wilhelm  Busch  made  a  great  name  as  a  humourist.     His 

**  Max  and  Moritz  "  is  known  the  world  over.     It  would  be 

impossible  to  mention  all  the  books  he  has 

"writer?''       published,   all  of  which  are  filled  with  the 

same  spirit  of  humour  or  satire. 

Hans  Hoffmann's  novels  are  full  of  quiet  humour  and 

excellent  descriptions  of  nature. 

Heinrich  Seidel  also  holds  a  proud  position  among  humorous 
writers.  His  best-known  work,  "  Suburban  Stories,"  is 
overflowing  with  wit  and  sparkles  with  intelligence.  Other 
of  his  books  enjoy  widespread  popularity. 

Kurt  Aram  is  a  writer  of  satirical  sketches,  and  also  author 

of  several  humorous  works.     He  has  produced  a  comedy, 

"  The  Agrarian  Committee,"  which  met  with  great  success. 

Detlev  von  Liliencron  attained  much  success  in  latter  years 

with  his  books  of  verse ;    but,  although  many  of  his  poems 

make  pretty  reading,  it  is  to  be  feared  that 

▼on  Lmen^cron.    ^^^^  ^^^^  "°*  ^^^^  ^°"^-     ^^^  romances,  many 
of   which   are    of   a   military   character,    as 
beseems  a  former  army  officer,  are  extremely  well  written. 

Franz  Adam  Beyerlein  achieved  remarkable  popularity 
with  his  "  Jena  oder  Sedan,"  which  has  many  literary  qualities 
besides  that  of  holding  the  public  interest. 


HERR  HERMANN  SUDERMANN 


>^     rue    T-uc 


Of   THE 


UN 


£>i 


SVERSITY 

OF 


Literary  Searchings  197 

Otto  Ernst  is  at  once  poet,  dramatist  and  novelist.  He  has 
a  pretty  touch  of  humour  in  many  of  his  works  and  at  times 
waxes  very  satirical. 

Gustav  Freytag,  who  started  out  to  write  works  dealing 

with  social  questions,  of  which  his  "  Soil  und  Haben  "  is  a 

good    example,    turned    later    to    historical 

A^  Historical    romance.     His  "  Ahnen  "  and  "  Bilder  aus 

KOmanClSt.  ,  ,  ,  xr  ^      -.    ,,  ^ 

der  deutschen  Vergangenheit  were  perhaps 
his  best  efforts.  In  the  latter  series  he  foreshadowed  the 
future  of  the  German  Empire  in  a  remarkable  way. 

Professor  Felix  Dahn  devoted  himself  to  the  historical 
novel,  and  his  "  Kampf  um  Rom  "  has  become  a  German 
classic.  His  other  efforts  have  not,  however,  reached  any- 
thing like  the  same  degree  of  talent.  Some  of  his  verse  at 
the  time  of  the  French  war  found  great  admiration. 

Gustav  Frenssen,  a  Protestant  pastor,  is  a  religious  author 

whose    stories   have    brought   him   an    enormous   following 

from  end  to  end  of  Germany.     Some  of  his 

^orks"^       works  have  run  into  editions  of  hundreds  of 

thousands,  the  most  popular  of  them  being 

"  Jom  Uhl." 

Wilhelm  Bolsche  is  a  philosophical  writer  of  capital  style 
and  diction,  who  has  attracted  much  attention  by  his  scientific 
studies  of  nature. 

Otto  Julius  Bierbaum,  who  died  early  in  1910,  was  more  of 
a  critic  and  essayist  than  a  novelist.  His  smaller  efforts  are 
remarkably  clever  and  entertaining. 

Stories  of  war  are  not  very  numerous  by  modem  German 
writers,  but  Carl  Bleibtreu  gained  much  note  for  his  excellent 
_  efforts  in  that  branch  of  literature.     He  has 

written,  besides  his  works  on  "  Cromwell," 
"  The  German  Arms  in  Spain,"  and  a  book  on  "  Frederick 
the  Great,"  several  novels  and  dramas,  all  of  which  display 
power.     He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  modern  movement. 

Ernst  von  Wildenbruch  also  published  some  books  of 
military  adventure,  such  as  "  VionviUe  "  and  "  Sedan," 


198  Germany  of  the  Germans 

Heinrich  von  Kleist,  too,  in  his  "  Prince  of  Homburg  "  and 
"  Hermannschlacht,"  dealt  with  deeds  of  war. 

Dietrich  Grabbe's  "  Duke  of  Gothland,"  "  Kaiser  Friedrich 
Barbarossa,"  "  Kaiser  Heinrich  der  Sechste  "  and  "  Napoleon, 
or  the  100  Days,"  are  stirring  tales. 

Paul  Heyse,  even  as  an  octogenarian,  had  a  heart  that  was 

always  young.     He  idolises  woman  in  all  his  works  and 

recognises   her   strength.     He   was   ever   an 

One  of  the  best  society  novelists  is  Karl 
Bulcke,  who  is  a  State  attorney.  He  is  rather  impressionist, 
but  very  romantic. 

Walter  Bloem,  Rudolf  Herzog,  and  Joseph  Lauff  have  all 
gained  laurels  in  romantic  literature,  and  their  works  are 
eagerly  read  throughout  Germany. 

The  list  of  less-known  authors  is  almost  endless.  A  few 
of  those  who  stand  out  as  having  acquired  a  more  or  less 
lasting  reputation  are  Stefan  George,  S.  Friedlander,  Max 
Dauthendey,  Gustav  Schiiler,  and  Georg  von  Ompteda. 

A  real  army  of  women  has  of  recent  years  taken  up  the  pen, 
but  until  now  few  of  them  have  won  leading 
Writers.        positions  in  the  literary  field. 

Helene  Bohlau  is  the  authoress  of  numerous 
novels,  some  of  which  are  well  worthy  of  the  popularity  they 
have  acquired.  Her  principal  romance  is  "  Der  Rangierbahn- 
hof,"  and  in  this,  as  in  most  of  the  others,  she  gives  a  vivid 
picture  of  the  strivings  of  womankind  towards  emancipation. 

Frida,  Freiin  von  Biilow  is  a  hard-working  novelist,  who  is 
always  before  the  public  eye.  Her  works  are  noted  for  their 
fine  studies  of  aristocratic  characters. 

Ida  Boy-Ed,  another  voluminous  writer,  confines  her 
attention  entirely  to  love  stories. 

Elizabeth  von  Heyking  has  gathered  a  circle  of  admirers 
through  several  artistically  written  books. 

Johanna  Ambrosius's  works  are  very  good  examples  of  real 
womanliness. 


Literary  Searchings  199 

The  spirit  of  the  times,  which  has  been  so  much  occupied 
with  material  progress,  has  rather  left  lyrical  art  out  in  the 
cold  and  neglect.  The  demand  for  poetry  has  in 
^"*^  *     recent  years  been  so  small  that  poets  have  been 

discouraged.  The  poetical  nature  of  the  German  is  not  dead, 
however ;  it  is  only  sleeping  until  the  strivings  necessitated 
by  the  universal  struggle  for  commercial  supremacy  slacken. 

Shortly  after  the  war  of  1870  poets  broke  loose  in  every 
part  of  the  Empire  and  in  every  class  of  society  with  patriotic 
verse,  which  at  the  time  was  received  with  jubilation ;  but 
much  of  it  had  only  a  short  life  and  has  since  been  forgotten. 
Rudolf  Baumbach,  Julius  Sturm,  Theodor  Fontane,  Oskar 
von  Redwitz,  Ernst  Curtius  and  Heinrich  von  Treitschke 
were  among  the  best  known  of  these  poets. 

Martin  Greif  stands  in  a  class  by  himself  as  a  modern  lyric 
poet.  His  verses  are  full  of  colour  and  fire.  They  are  written 
A  L  d"  p  t  ^^^^  ^  certainty,  a  naturalness  and  a  fineness 
not  attained  by  any  other  German  poet  of 
the  present  day.  He  expresses  the  sentiments  of  love,  desire, 
passion,  triumph,  sorrow  and  sympathy  in  a  remarkable 
manner.  His  ballads  appeal  to  a  large  circle.  His  Hterary 
activity  in  his  later  years  has  somewhat  declined.  He  has 
never  accomplished  any  work  of  great  dramatic  note. 

Julius  Wolff  is  also  a  widely  read  poet.  Among  his  best- 
known  works  are  "  Eulenspiegel  Redivivus,"  **  Der  Wilde 
Jager  "  and  "  Der  Rat tenf anger  von  Hameln." 

Gustav  Schiller  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  volumes  of 
verse,  much  of  which  is  devoted  to  folk-song,  in  which  he 
expresses  himself  with  admirable  clearness  and  force.  Much 
of  his  poetry  is  of  a  deep  religious  character. 

Levin  Ludwig  Schiicking  is  the  worthy  scion  of  a  poetical 

family.     His  grandfather.   Levin  Schiicking, 

FamUv*^        had  made  the  name  well  known  many  years 

ago.      Many    of    the    young    poet's    verses 

show  remarkable  talent,  especially  those  descriptive  of  his 

native  province  of  Westphalia. 


200  Germany  of  the  Germans 

Ferdinand  Avenarius,  as  a  writer  of  lyrics,  has  won  con- 
siderable fame.  His  "  Stimmen  und  Bilder  "  is  perhaps  his 
best  work. 

Richard  Dehmel  is  a  poet  rather  inclined  to  the  decadent 
school,  but  whose  writings  show  immense  variety  and  a 
splendid  mastery  of  language. 

Gustav  Falke  has  published  several  striking  volumes  of 
verse,  remarkable  for  their  simplicity  and  beauty. 

One  of  the  coming  poets  is  a  young  man  named  Alfons 
Paquet,  who  has  already  published  several  volumes  of  talented 
verse.  He  has  written  many  songs  and  also  a  series  of  poems 
on  life  in  a  great  city,  which  reproduce  in  a  remarkable  manner 
scenes  which  he  has  witnessed. 

The  immense  production  of    books  and  periodical  works 

in  Germany  can  be  judged  from  the   statistics  pubHshed 

by  the    Booksellers'   Exchange,  which  states 

^'"^Biokr  °^    *^^*  ^^^"^  J^^y  ^'  ^^^^'  ^^  J^^^  ^^'  ^^^'  ^^ 
fewer  than  30,718  books  and  other  pubHca- 

tions  were  issued  in  the  German  Empire.     In  BerHn  alone 

during  that  period  7,775  works  were  published,  in  Leipzig 

6,070,  in  Stuttgart  1,832  and  in  Munich  1,505. 

The  extent  to  which  books  are  sold  in  Germany  by  house- 
to-house  colporteurs  is  enormous.  There  are  on  the  official 
registers  no  less  than  80,000  of  these  persons  who  make  a 
permanent  profession  of  calling  from  door  to  door  for  orders 
for  books  on  the  instalment  system,  and,  according  to  different 
estimates,  they  succeed  in  making  sales  to  the  value  of  from 
;f2,500,000  to  ;f4,000,000  annually.  Most  of  the  so-called 
"  hterary  "  matter  thus  spread  among  the  people  is  of  the 
paltriest  kind,  and  many  efforts  have  been  made  to  stop  its 
circulation  by  means  of  cheap  editions  of  good  authors.  The 
evil  continues,  however,  to  spread,  and  it  has  much  to  answer 
for  in  connection  with  the  demoralization  of  the  youth  of  both 
sexes. 

Despite  the  fact  that  Germany  is  such  a  land  of  books,  the 
smallness  of  the   number  of  public  libraries  is  somewhat 


V<3F  THE 


Literary  Searchings  201 

surprising.      If  statistics  are  correct,  there  are  only  190  of 
these  useful  institutions  in  the  Empire.     The  total  number 
of  volumes  contained  therein  is  23,456,200, 
L'br^^'^  or  about  one  volume  to  every  three  inhabi- 

tants. The  reason  of  this  poverty  of  libraries 
is  the  small  amounts  placed  at  their  disposal  by  the  State  and 
municipal  authorities,  which  limits  their  extension  and  the 
acquisition  of  new  works. 


CHAPTER  XXir 

THE   PRESS- AND   ITS   INFLUENCE 

In  spite  of  the  facts  that  the  art  of  printing  was  originated  in 

Germany  and  that  the  first  newspaper  was  certainly  printed 

there,  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  German  Press 

Position^  *      ^^^  holds  such  an  important  position  in  the 

world  as  that  of  several  other  countries. 

What  it  lacks  in  quality,  however,  it  makes  up  for  by  its 

ample  quantity,  for  the  number  of  newspapers  and  periodicals 

is  very  considerable.     The  last  figures  to  hand  show  that 

there  are  7,748  newspapers  on  the  postal  Hst,  4,336  of  which 

are  dailies  and  3,412  weeklies  or  monthlies. 

The  first  real  newspaper  published  under  that  title  appeared 

in  Augsburg  in  1505  with  the   name    of    Copia  der  Newen 

Zeitung   aus   Bresilg   Land.     This,  however, 

l^wspaper.      ^^^  ^^^  preceded  by  many  "  Fly  Leaves." 

Strassburg  possessed  a  newspaper  in   1609, 

Frankfort-on-Main  in    1615,  Berlin  in    1617,  Nuremberg  in 

1620,  Hildesheim  in   1621,  Augsburg   and   Munich   in    1627 

and  Hamburg  in  1628. 

The  enterprise  then  shown  has  not,  as  a  rule,  extended  to 
the  present  day.  This  is  perhaps  accounted  for  by  the  fact 
that  until  late  last  century — till  1889,  to  be  exact — the  Press 
was  subject  to  repressive  surveillance  by  the  authorities, 
who  feared  its  enlightening  influence.  Socialist  papers  were 
forbidden  altogether,  but  they  filtered  through  from  England 
and  Switzerland  and  made  more  converts  to  the  party  in 
consequence  of  the  prohibition  than  if  they  had  been  entirely 
free,  for  they  passed  from  hand  to  hand  in  secret  and  were 
read  with  much  zest  by  the  working  classes,  who  were  told  by 
the  writers  that  they  were  being  oppressed. 

202 


The  Press  and  its  Influence  203 

Newspapers  are  still  placed  under  many  restrictions  as  to 

what  they  may  publish,  and  the  decision  as  to  the  news  given 

does  not  rest  in  all  cases  in  the  hands  of  the 

Re  ^^^ns  editors.  They  are  prohibited,  for  instance, 
under  severe  penalties,  from  giving  reports  of 
divorce  cases  and  of  military  and  naval  arrangements,  the 
publication  of  which  might  divulge  to  a  possible  enemy  the 
Governmental  plans.  These  restrictions  are  for  the  good  of 
the  nation  from  several  points  of  view,  and  it  would  be  well  if 
they  were  extended  lo  reports  of  immoral  scandals,  which 
cannot  effect  any  good  purpose.  This  latter  point  has 
recently  been  taken  into  consideration  by  the  Ministry,  and  a 
'bill  has  been  introduced  deahng  with  the  matter,  for  it  has  been 
found  that  the  long  detailed  descriptions  of  vicious  practices 
given  by  the  journals  tend  to  their  spread  instead  of  leading 
to  their  extinction. 

The  development  of  the  Press  has  been  greatly  retarded  by 

the  lack  of  a  Press  tariff  for  telegrams.     News  which  in  other 

countries  would  be  immediately  telegraphed 

Tar'ff^        at  full  length  by  special  correspondents  from 

the  provinces  and  abroad  is  in  many  cases 

sent  by  letter,  so  that  the  public  often  waits  twenty-four  hours 

and  longer  for  the  details  of  events  which  have  occurred  in  the 

country  itself,  not  to  mention  the  delay  that  occurs  in  the 

arrival  of  news  from  distant  lands. 

Hitherto,  however,  the  German  public  has  not  expressed 
any  great  desire  for  "  hot  "  telegraphic  news.  The  average 
German  is  usually  content  to  wait  and  may  often  be  seen 
reading  the  newspaper  of  yesterday  with  apparent  relish. 

It  must  be  said  that  there  are  several  brilliant  exceptions 

from  the  general  tardiness  of  the  German  Press.     The  Lokal 

Anzeiger   and   the    Tagehlatt   of   Berlin,    the 

Some  Brilliant   Cologne   Gazette,   the   Frankfurt  Gazette,   and 
Newspapers.  o  '  /  » 

newspapers  in  Leipzig,  Hamburg  and  Munich 

may   be   reckoned  as  really  up-to-date   newspapers,   which 

spend  enormous  amounts  on  obtaining  rapid  news  services 


204  Germany  of  the  Germans 

and  maintain  brilliant  correspondents  in  all  parts  of  the 
world.  They  have  launched  out  in  a  manner  which  would  not 
have  been  dreamed  of  a  few  years  ago. 

The  circulation  of  German  newspapers  in  general  has  not 

attained  very  great  proportions.     This  is  accounted  for  by 

the  fact  that  most  of  them  are  sold  by  sub- 

Smalf  °"      scription.     Until  very  recent  years  there  was 

scarcely  any  street  sale,  but  this  is  now  being 

changed  by  the  erection  of  newspaper  kiosks  at  the  busiest 

points  of  the  great  cities.     Even  at  the  present  day  newspaper 

publishers  have  experienced  that  when  they  issue  a  special 

edition  recording  the  happening  of  an  event  which  interests 

the  whole  world  they  find  very  few  purchasers,  and,  as  a  matter 

of  fact,  the  "  extras  "  are  nearly  always  given  away. 

The  standing  of  the  Press  in  the  opinion  of  the  public  authori- 
ties is  not  very  high.   It  is  said  that  the  Emperor 
^^^*  Pr  s       holds  the  German  newspapers  and  journalists  in 
small  esteem,  but  he  frequently  receives  and 
converses  freely  with  foreign  journalists  of  distinction. 

The  leading  statesmen  of  Germany  have  in  many  instances 
utilised  the  Press  to  put  their  views  before  the  world.  Bis- 
marck was,  for  instance,  closely  identified  with  the  Hamburger 
Nachrichten  throughout  his  career.  Von  Bulow  inspired 
many  articles  of  political  importance,  which  appeared  over 
the  names  of  well-known  journalists,  but  whose  contents 
were  recognised  as  emanating  from  the  late  Chancellor. 

The  Foreign  Office  has  an  organ  of  the  Press  always  at  its 

disposal  in  the  Norddeutsche  Allgemeine  Zeitung,  and  much  of 

the  political  information,  more  particularly  in  reference  to 

foreign  affairs,  that  appears  in  the  Koelnische  Zeitung  emanates 

directly  from  high  official  quarters. 

The  Press  Bureau  of  the  Foreign  Office,   which  always 

obtains  its  orders  from  the  Imperial  Chancellor, 

^  mifau^       directly  or  indirectly,  does  not  enjoy  the  entire 

confidence  of  either  Press  or  public,  which 

have  both  come  to  regard  the  information  given  out  by  it 


The  Press  and  its  Influence  205 

as  tainted  with  the  intention  of  leading  pubHc  opinion  to 
the  view  desired  by  the  Government,  and  not  giving  the 
news  to  the  public  as  news  on  which  the  people  themselves 
should  form  an  opinion. 

Another  organ  for  the  dissemination  of  official  views  is  the 
Berlin  Correspondence,  which  is  edited  in  the  Ministries  and 
contains  official  information,  besides  correcting  assertions 
made  by  the  daily  newspapers.  This  sheet  is  forwarded  free 
to  any  newspaper  applying  for  it. 

The  only  news  agency  in  Germany  worthy  of  serious  con- 
sideration is  that  known  as  Wolff's  Telegraphic  Bureau,  which 
holds  a  semi-official  position  and  is  closely  connected  with  the 
great  news  agencies  of  every  country  in  the  world.  It  is  in 
reality  the  only  source  of  foreign  news  for  the  majority  of  the 
newspapers,  to  which  it  supplies  a  very  extensive  news  service. 

German  journalists,  as  a  rule,  are  not  well  known  in  foreign 
countries,  although  they  usually  sign  their  articles.  Maxi- 
milian Harden's  name  is,  however,  known  in 
TournaHsts  virtually  every  quarter  of  the  globe  as  that 
of  a  brilliant  journalist  who,  when  he  tackles 
a  problem  of  public  interest,  whether  political  or  otherwise, 
thrashes  it  out  without  fear  or  favour.  In  his  periodical.  Die 
Zukunft,  he  deals  with  all  public  questions  in  a  way  that  can  only 
be  recognised  as  masterful.  His  political  standpoint  is  that  of 
Bismarck,  with  whom  he  was  on  the  most  intimate  terms.  He 
is  popularly  supposed  to  have  brought  about  the  fall  of  the 
Imperial  Chancellor,  Count  von  Capri vi,  by  his  writings.  He  is  a 
critic  who  strikes  hard,  and  the  sting  of  his  pen  is  feared  greatly 
by  those  who  put  themselves  in  a  position  open  to  an  attack. 

There  are,  of  course,  many  other  excellent  journalists  on 
the  various  newspapers,  but  their  fame  is  mostly  local.  Pro- 
fessor Schiemann,  who  writes  almost  exclu- 
Locaf"^^  sively  on  foreign  affairs,  is  often  quoted  when 
an  international  crisis  is  raging. 

The  German  journalist  is  a  very  hard  worker  and,  having 
in  most  cases  enjoyed  a  university  education,  is  also  a  good 


206  Germany  of  the  Germans 

writer.  His  ideas  on  the  subject  of  news-getting  are,  however, 
somewhat  different  from  those  obtaining  in  other  countries. 
In  recording  the  news  of  the  day  he  is  incHned  to  put  far  more 
of  his  own  personahty  into  the  report  than  is  really  warranted. 
He  labours  under  difficulties  which  are  not  met  with  by 
his  colleagues  in  other  countries.     The  police  of  Germany 

afford  him  absolutely  no  facilities  for  carrying 
Difficulties       ^^*  ^^^  work.     He  is  rather  considered  as  a 

very  unwelcome  intruder  into  the  public 
domain,  and  not  as  a  representative  of  the  public  interests. 
He  is  received  with  suspicion  by  most  officials,  who  at  once 
place  themselves  on  their  guard,  as  though  a  spy  from  the 
enemy's  camp  were  endeavouring  to  pry  out  secrets.  Public 
opinion,  the  officials  consider,  is  a  thing  apart  from  the  carrying 
out  of  their  duties,  and  often  they  manifest  a  decided  dis- 
inclination to  enlighten  the  people  through  the  Press 
concerning  a  point  at  issue. 

The  career  of  the  German  journalist,  too,  is  a  restricted 
one.     It  does  not  lead,  as  in  some  other  countries,  to  public 

positions.     In  the  Government  service  or  in 
Restrfdied       *^^  Ministries  there  is  no  opening  for  him — 

he  has  not  gone  through  the  regular  bureau- 
cratic mill.  He  might  be  never  such  a  clever  man  and  possess 
all  kinds  of  knowledge  useful  to  an  administrator  of  public 
affairs,  but  he  cannot  obtain  any  footing. 

As  regards  the  periodical  Press,  the  German  reviews  are 
noted  for  their  remarkable  articles  on  scientific  subjects  and 
on  philosophy,  but  their  political  influence  is  regarded  as  very 
small.  Most  of  the  writers  are  professors,  whose  style  is 
inclined  to  the  dogmatic  and  does  not  admit  of  argument. 
The  illustrated  periodicals  hold  an  important  position  in 

the  German  Press.      Many  of  them  are  real 
"pa^rs!^       works  of  art.     Among  the  best  known  are 

the  Illustrierte  Zeitung,  Vom  Pels  zum  Meet, 
Moderne  Kunst,  Fiir  alle  Welt  and  Die  Woche,  but  there  are 
many  others  which  are  very  popular. 


The  Press  and  its  Influence  207 

The  ordinary  daily  and  weekly  newspapers,  too,  are  now 
making  extensive  use  of  illustrations,  and  the  tendency  seems 
to  be  in  the  direction  of  giving  additional  interest  to  the  news 
of  the  day  by  illustrating  it  with  photographs  and  drawings. 

The   German  satirical   and  comic   papers  have   probably 

attained  as  great  renown  as  those  of  any  other  country,  and 

in  most  cases  they  are  fully  entitled  to  it. 

Humorous       Many  of  them  are  liable,  however,  at  times 

to  overstep  the   bounds  of  good  taste  and 

decency.     A  certain  licence  is,  of  course,  permissible  in  a 

comic  paper,  but  some  of  the  drawings  dealing  with  public 

events  are,  to  say  the  least,  unsuitable  to  be  placed  in  the 

hands  of  minors.     Humour  surely  can  be  illustrated  without 

bestiality ! 

The  drawings  produced  in  the  humorous  periodicals  are, 
as  a  rule,  remarkably,  good,  and  many  of  them  are  really 
witty  without  the  fault  of  tastelessness  and  abuse  of  artistic 
freedom  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  at  times  their  so-called 
wit  is  accompanied  by  such  horrors  that  they  arouse  a  feeling 
of  disgust. 

The  titles  of  some  of  the  humorous  papers,  such  as  Fliegende 
Blatter,  Lustige  Blatter,  Jugend,  Kladderadatsch  and  Simplicis- 
simus,  are  known  as  well  outside  of  Germany  as  within,  and 
pictures  from  them  are  widely  reproduced  abroad. 

The  postal  arrangements  for  forwarding  and  subscription 

to  newspapers  are  excellent.     The  postal  authorities  issue  a 

list  of  all  the  papers  with  their  subscription 

Arrangements  P^^^^  dehvered  in  the  house,  and  a  would-be 
subscriber  has  only  to  inform  the  postman  of 
his  desire  to  subscribe  and  pay  the  sum  noted  and  the  paper 
is  regularly  delivered. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

"  INTENSE  "   MUSIC 

When  music  is  under  discussion  in  any  part  of  the  globe,  it 

is  almost  inevitable  that  Germany  should  be  mentioned  in 

the  course  of  the  conversation,  for  Germany 

Music*  °^    ^^^  come  to  be  regarded  as  the  modern  home 

of  music.     It  cannot  be  disputed  that  the 

Germans  are  musical :   probably  the  most  musical  nation  the 

world  has  known,  with  the  exception  of  the  Jews. 

The  musical  life  of  the  country  is  "  intense  "  in  the  most 
extended  signification  of  the  word. 

In  whatever  class  of  society  one  moves,  whether  among  the 
wealthy  or  the  poor,  music  has  a  place,  and  a  high  one,  in  the 
people's  thoughts.  Grand  opera,  high-class  orchestral  concerts, 
popular  choral  evenings,  the  public  performances  of  military 
bands — all  are  certain  of  overflowing  patronage  at  all  times. 

Virtually  every  club,  whatever  its  purpose,  has  its  favourite 
songs,  which  the  members  sing  together  on  all  kinds  of  occa- 
sions.    University  students  always  foregather 
^^Sinzs^^      to  the  accompaniment  of  song.     Workmen 
at  their  political  demonstrations  sing.     The 
peasants  sing  going  to   and  from  their  work.     Even   the 
soldiers  are  encouraged  to  sing  on  the  march  outside  of  the 
cities,  one  of  the  officers  with  musical  talent  being  specially 
appointed  in  each  battalion,  battery  or  regiment  to  teach 
the  men  patriotic  marching  songs. 

The  German  folk-songs,  which  everybody  in  the  Empire 
sings,  and  which  are  carried  into  foreign  lands  in  the  farthest 
parts  of  the  earth  by  thousands  of  emigrants, 
will  probably  never  lose  their  hold  on  the 
people.  The  Emperor  recognises  their  great  value  as  an 
element  in  the  maintenance  and  furtherance  of  patriotism. 
He  offers  much  personal  encouragement  to  choral  societies 

208 


"Intense*'  Music  209 

which  practise  these  simple  melodies,  which  really  express  the 
sentiment  of  the  people,  and  makes  it  his  duty  to  attend  from 
time  to  time  their  singing  competitions.  He  is  not  sparing  in 
his  criticisms  when  composers  attempt  to  inflict  ornamental 
variations  on  the  simple  words.  Latterly,  as  head  of  the  Army, 
he  has  given  orders  that  all  soldiers  shall  be  taught  the  best 
of  these  songs,  old  and  new,  so  that  when  they  return  home 
from  their  military  service  they  shall  spread  them  among  their 
families. 

Musical  education  and  comprehension  in  Germany  have, 
with  the  spread  of  general  instruction,  made  extraordinary 

strides.     Many  millions  of  people  who  were. 
Musical         before  the  compulsory  school  attendance,  as 

Httle  interested  in  artistic  music  as  in  any 
other  kind  of  art  have  now,  by  reason  of  the  broadening  of  their 
minds,  developed  a  desire  for  more  intellectual  food. 

Yet,  with  all  this  encouragement  and  all  this  desire  for 
music,  modem  composers  of  real  genius  are  very  few.     There 

seems  for  the  moment  to  be  a  period  of  stagna- 
^°^^g^^^"^^5  tion.     Many  of  the  younger  men  take  up  a 

position  very  similar  to  that  of  the  impres- 
sionist painter,  and  offer  to  the  waiting  world  a  discordant 
mixture  of  a  few  tones  hashed  and  rehashed.  They  will 
tell  you  it  represents  a  ship  in  a  tempest  with  the  winds 
howling  through  the  rigging  and  the  cries  of  men  washed 
overboard,  or  else  a  storm  hurtling  through  a  forest  with 
old  oaks  and  elms  cracking  and  falling  before  its  fury.  The 
music  might  be  intended  to  represent  these  things  and  might 
even  do  so  in  the  mind  of  the  composer ;  but  it  might  also 
represent  the  sounds  arising  from  a  catastrophe  in  the 
kitchen.  That  is  a  matter  of  opinion.  The  worst  compli- 
ment one  can  pay  this  kind  of  composer  is  to  tell  him  he  has 
written  something  pleasant,  harmonious  and  comprehensible 
to  all.  He  stands,  in  his  own  opinion,  upon  a  plane  much 
higher  than  that.  A  charitable  view  of  his  position  is  that  he 
is  fishing  in  the  sea  of  sound  without  much  success. 

14— <339i) 


210  Germany  of  the  Germans 

It  is  probably  as  difficult  for  composers  as  for  artists  and 

authors  to  give  expression  to  the  "  hustle  "  of  to-day's  stream 

of  thought ;   but,  as  in  other  branches  of  life 

Hustle^        the  demand  for  modernity  has  produced  a 

supply,  so  it  may  be  in  music,  and  the  near 

future  may  provide  a  style  which  combines  art  in  its  best  form 

with  up-to-date  methods  of  expression. 

It  remains  a  fact  that,  during  the  past  twenty  years,  no 
German  composer  has  given  the  world  anything  that  could 
for  a  moment  bear  comparison  with  the  works  of  Schubert, 
Schumann,  Weber,  Mendelssohn,  Haydn,  Bach,  Beethoven, 
Brahms  and  Wagner.  All  these  masters  continue  to  maintain 
their  hold  on  the  public,  and  latterly  have  even  increased  their 
popularity. 

Richard  Wagner,  the  operatic  master  of  Germany,  who 

invented  what  is  now  considered  a  really  national  music,  was 

one  of  those  exceptions  who,  hke  a  Goethe 

Wagner         °^   ^   Shakespeare,    appear   only  once   in   a 

nation's  history.     He  was  at  first  regarded 

as  an  impossible  revolutionary,  but  his  ideas  gained  ground 

and,  even  before  his  sudden  death  in  Vienna  in  1883,  he  had 

become  the  nation's  idol.     His  plan  of  making  Bayreuth  the 

home  for  model  performances  of  all  operatic  works  was  never 

carried  out  and  the  little  Bavarian  town  has  become  simply 

a  Wagner  centre. 

Richard   Strauss,   Engelbert     Humperdinck    and    August 

Bungert  are  the  only  operatic  composers  who  have  of  late 

years   gained   the    approval    of   the    public. 

Recent  Opera    Wagnerian  influence  preponderates  in  most  of 

the  opera  music  of  the  present  day,  in  some 

instances  in  extremely  exaggerated  form ;  but  none  of  the 

modem  composers  have  been  able  to  approach  the  skilful 

musicianship  of  the  great  German  master.    Other  composers 

than  the  three  named  have  from  time  to  time  had  passing 

success. 

In  the  lighter  kinds  of  opera  the  works  of  Albert  Lortzing 


"Intense''  Music  211 

have  usually  been  adopted  as  examples  to  be  imitated  by  other 
composers.  Some  of  the  newer  works  have  achieved  momen- 
tary success,  but  few  possess  any  lasting  worth.  Perhaps 
among  the  best  liked  and  most  musical  is  "  The  Taming  of  the 
Shrew,"  by  Hermann  Gotz. 

German  chamber  music  stands  out  to-day  from  all  other 
kinds  owing  to  its  excellence.  In  this  branch  of  composition 
the  real  musician  comes  to  the  front,  without  any  technical 
frills  and  ornaments  to  aid  his  efforts. 

Berlin  has  become  the  central  point  of  musical  Hfe.     It 

has  grown  in  this  respect  in  the  same  proportion  as  it  has 

increased  in  importance  as  a  political  centre. 

^""^Berirn^  °^  '^^^  Kaiser,  who  personally  takes  great 
interest,  both  as  music  lover  and  financially, 
in  the  Royal  Opera,  has  always  desired  to  make  the  Berlin 
Opera  House  the  musical  headquarters  of  Germany.  It  is, 
however,  rare  for  an  opera  to  be  produced  there  for  the  first 
time. 

The  Dresden  Court  Opera  holds  indubitably  the  first  rank 
in  Germany.  Ready  at  all  times  to  welcome  novelties,  it  has 
been  the  scene  of  the  first  performances  of  many  renowned 
works — Wagner,  Richard  Strauss,  etc. 

Concert  music,  in  which  Leipzig,  the  home  of  music  dealers, 

once  took  the  lead,  is  better  represented  in  Beriin  since  the 

Saxon  city  has  become  more  of  an  industrial 

Concert         centre.      It   is   still,  however,  customary  for 

new-comers  to  seek  the  approval  of  the  Leipzig 

musical  critics,  as  well  as  those  of  Berlin,  before  launching  out 

on  a  professional  career. 

Orchestral  concerts  are  given  in  enormous  quantities 
throughout  the  autumn  and  winter  in  all  the  big  cities. 
There  are  several  world-famed  orchestras — the  Royal,  the 
Philharmonic  and  Panzner — all  of  which  attract  large 
audiences. 

One  of  the  most  widely  known  and  at  the  same  time  justly 
renowned  musical  societies  is  the  Philharmonic  of  Berhn, 


212  Germany  of  the  Germans 

which  in  1909  celebrated  its  twenty-fifth  birthday.  It 
may  be  said  that  anything  of  importance  in  the  musical 
world,  not  only  of  Berhn,  but  of  the  Empire, 
"^^^  ^sidety"''''^''  centres  in  this  society.  It  has  done  wonders 
for  the  musical  education  of  the  country, 
bringing  to  Berlin  the  greatest  musicians  in  the  world. 

Even  in  the  smaller  cities  and  towns  concerts  of  high-class 
music  are  given  with  notable  frequency,  under  the  directorship 
of  excellent  conductors. 

Musical  festivals  are  held  in  many  of  the  great  towns  every 
year  and  attract  enormous  audiences. 

Richard    Strauss    without    doubt    occupies     the    leading 

position    in    the   German   musical    world    of    to-day.      His 

works  certainly  give  rise  to  a  great  amount 

Richard  ^    criticism  on  account   of    their  unwonted 

Strauss.  ,  ,  ,      ,  •        i  •        i      ^ 

tendency,  but  everybody  recognises  his  talent 

and  earnest  purpose.  Many  of  his  compositions  are  full 
of  difficulties  for  conductors.  Strauss  himself  is  a  wonderful 
orchestral  leader.  He  began  composing  music  when  he  was 
only  six  years  old,  and  at  twenty-one  had  become  Court 
musical  director  in  Meiningen.  A  year  later  he  took  a  similar 
position  in  Munich  ;  from  1889  to  1894  he  was  Court  con- 
ductor in  Weimar  ;  from  1894  to  1898  he  was  again  in  Munich, 
and  then  was  given  the  succession  to  Felix  Weingartner  as 
Court  conductor  in  Berlin. 

Strauss  represents  in  himself  the  new  Romantic  school  of 
music,  to  which  he  gives  expression  in  his  two  remarkable 
operas,  "  Salome  "  and  "  Elektra,"  both  of 
^^^S^h"^r"^*^  which  are  notable  for  their  extraordinarily 
exaggerated  and  eccentric  effects.  The  com- 
poser has  developed  in  them  hitherto  undreamt-of  methods 
of  composition.  He  varies  mystic  passages  with  reahstic 
rallies  in  such  a  way,  and  with  such  masterly  technique,  that 
the  hearer  is  to  a  certain  extent  hypnotised. 

Of  Strauss's  compositions  the  best  known  are  "Don 
Juan,"  "  Macbeth,"   "  Don  Quixote,"  "  Till  Eulenspiegel," 


"Intense'*  Music  213 

"  Feuersnot,"  "  Tod  und  Verklarung,"  "  Salome  "  and 
"  Elektra,"  the  last  two  S3miphonic  poems.  It  is  generally 
said  that  he  makes  too  much  of  details  and  that  his 
compositions  lack  proper  light  and  shade. 

Engelbert  Humperdinck   is    also    reckoned    in    the   first 

rank  of  German  musical  composers  of  the  day.     With  his 

"  Hansel  und  Gretel,"  founded  on  the  fairy 

F^^^^t^Rajik      story,    he     achieved    immediate    success    in 

1894.      He  has  also  produced  a  number  of 

other  fairy  tale  operas,  including  "  Sieben  Geislein,"  "  Konigs- 

kinder,"  and  "  Domroschen,"  the  latter  of  which  was  well 

received. 

Siegfried  Wagner,  son  of  the  great  Wagner,  who  lives  in 
Bayreuth  and  conducts  the  Wagner  festivals,  has  written  a 
number  of  operatic  works,  only  one  of  which,  "  Die 
Barenhauter,"  has  met  with  popular  approval. 

August  Bungert,  who  is  both  pianist  and  composer,  brought 
out  an  opera,  "  The  Homerian  World,"  with  but  moderate 
success.  He  has  better  results  with  his  songs  and  chamber 
music,  s)miphonies,  etc. 

Max  Bruch's  operas,  "  Loreley  '*  and  "  Hermione,"  are 
enjoyable  works.  He  has  also  composed  a  number  of  choral 
works  and  concertos. 

Of  other  recent  operas,  "  Tiefland,"  by  Eugen  d' Albert ; 

"  Der  Rattenf anger  von  Hameln,"  by  Paul  Geissler  ;  "  Edda," 

by   Karl   Reinthaler ;     "  Till   Eulenspiegel," 

Other  Recent    .      y^^^  Reznicek,  attracted  some  attention, 
UpercLs.  -^ 

but  not  of  an  enduring  kind. 

Arnold  Mendelssohn,  who  is  a  relative  of  the  great 
Mendelssohn,  displays  talent  in  a  very  marked  degree. 

Max  Reger,  of  Leipzig,  who  confines  himself  principally  to 
chamber  music  and  piano  pieces,  is  a  consistent  disciple  of 
Bach.  He  has  composed  much  for  the  organ  and  has  produced 
several  choral  works. 

Philip  Scharwenka  has  also  produced  som^  excellent 
chamber  music, 


214  Germany  of  the  Germans 

Joseph  Joachim,  who  was  as  well  known  in  London  as  in 
Berlin  in  the  latter  part  of  last  century,  was  the  recognised 
master  of  the  violin.    His  works  for  that 
^^V'^l*n  *^^    instrument  are  almost  innumerable. 

Many  modern  music  composers  have  at  the 
same  time  been  authors  of  no  mean  repute.  Engelbert 
Humperdinck  was  for  a  period  a  critic  of  great  renown  in 
Frankfort.  Richard  Strauss  and  Max  Reger  have  also 
published  excellently  written  works.  Hans  Pfitzner,  a 
composer  who  sticks  to  the  old  school,  is  co-editor  of  a  South 
German  monthly  periodical. 

Among  the  host  of  well-known  conductors,  many  of  whom 
deserve  more  praise  than  they  obtain  for  their  help  in  making 
musical   productions  successful,   is   Siegfried 
DTnduSoTs"     ^^^^'  ^^^  brought  the  wonderful   Philhar- 
monic choir  to  its  present  state  of  perfection. 
Then  there   are  Max  Fiedler,  who  also  composes  orchestral 
and  chamber  music ;   Felix  Mottl,  who  is  one  of  the  best  of 
Beethoven  conductors ;    and  Franz  Fischer,  who  has  con- 
ducted in  Bayreuth.     Of  course  there  are  many  others  whose 
names  are  equally  familiar  both  in  Germany  and  England. 
Noted  German  instrumentalists,  who  are  also  in  most  cases 
composers,    include :     Moritz     Moszkowski,    Otto    Neitzel, 
Heinrich  Barth,  Hans  von  Bronsart,  all  of  whom  are  pianists 
who  have  played  in  various  countries,  including  England  ; 
Gustav  Hollander,  Willy  Burmeister  and  Bernhard  Dessau, 
violinists ;    Robert  Haussmann  (of  the  Joachim  quartett), 
Hugo  Becker  and  Hugo  Dechert,  violoncellists,  and  Wilhelm 
Posse,  harpist. 

Germany  has,  as  is  only  to  be  expected  from  SHch  a  musical 
nation,  produced  many  singers  of  world-wide  repute. 

Emma    Destinn,    the    soprano    of    Berhn, 

sSeers*        where  she  is  a  member  of  the  Royal  Opera 

Company,  was  born  in  Prague,  Bohemia,  but 

is  generally  looked  upon  as  a  German.     She  has  sung  in  aU 

^e  leading  capitals. 


E.    DESTINN 


''Intense"  Music  215 

Lilli  Lehmann-Kalisch,  Mathilde  de  Castrone  Marchesi, 
Marie  Dietrich,  Ottilie  Froitzheim-Metzger  and  Marie  Gotze 
are  names  on  everybody's  lips.  They  are  mentioned  here 
without  any  prejudice  towards  the  many  other  distinguished 
women  who  have  achieved  fame  as  operatic  and  concert 
singers. 

It  would  require  several  pages  to  reproduce  the  names  of 
German  men  vocalists  who  are  known  outside  as  well  as  inside 
of  Germany,  but  a  few  who  have  earned  laurels  in  England 
may  be  mentioned.  For  instance,  Georg  Henschel,  Karl 
Scheidemantel,  Theodor  Bertram,  Franz  von  Dulong,  Andreas 
Dippel,  Karl  Dietrich  and  Ludwig  Hess. 

Where  the  great  singers  come  from  and  how  their  gift  was 

first  discovered  are  interesting  questions,  which  can  be  answered 

in  some  cases  in  connection  with  German 

Where  Singers    gi^^ers 

Come  From,      ^^^^f^^'  ,„,,,, 

Theodor  Wachtel,  the  operatic  tenor,  was 

originally  a  coachman  in  Hamburg.     It  is  stated  that  one 

evening,  as  he  was  driving  a  wealthy  wine  merchant  home 

from  the  opera,  his  customer  overheard  him  singing  some  notes 

from  an  aria.    Wachtel's  artistic  career  began  soon  afterwards. 

Anton  Schott  was  a  captain  of  artillery  in  the  Wiirttemberg 
army  and  had  fought  through  the  Franco-German  war  before 
he  learned  that  he  possessed  a  splendid  tenor  voice.  He  then 
went  on  to  the  stage  and  reaped  triumphs  in  England  and 
America  as  well  as  in  his  native  land. 

Otto  Briesemeister,  also  a  great  tenor,  was  a  practising 
physician  before  he  went  in  for  opera,  while 

^^^Singrr.^""*  Paul  Kniipfer,  the  concert  singer,  studied  for 
the  same  profession. 

Karl  Burrian,  the  dramatic  tenor  of  the  Dresden  Opera, 
is  a  lawyer. 

Franz  Betz,  once  the  leading  baritone  of  the  Berlin  Opera, 
was  a  technical  student  in  Stuttgart,  and  Marian  Alma,  the 
lyric  tenor  at  the  same  theatre,  also  studied  at  a  technical 
school. 


216  Germany  of  the  Germans 

Albert  Niemann,  the  wonderful  Tannhauser,  was  a 
locksmith. 

Georg  Anthes,  dramatic  tenor  in  the  Dresden  Opera,  was  a 
violinist  at  Homburg,  while  Otto  Brucks,  the  baritone,  was  a 
contra-bass  player. 

Ernst  Kraus,  one  of  the  leading  Wagnerian  tenors,  was  a 
brewer's  drayman. 

Max  Alvary,  the  great  Wagner  singer,  was 

^  TeSr."^"    *^^  ^^^  °^  *^^  well-known  landscape  artist, 

Andreas  Achenbach.     He  also  wanted  to  be 

a  painter,  but  his  father  apprenticed  him  to  a  business  career, 

which  he  left  to  become  a  builder.     His  gift  was  discovered 

while  he  was  at  work  in  Milan. 

There  are  no  fewer  than  50,000  professional  musicians  in 
Germany,  most  of  whom  rely  on  teaching  and  occasional 
engagements,  as  only  2,500  are  employed  in  State  and  muni- 
cipal theatre  orchestras,  and  another  10,000  in  private 
orchestras.     Their  earnings  are,  as  a  rule,  extremely  moderate. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

DRAMATIC  FARE 

Drama  comes  after  music  in  the  intellectual  fare  of  Germany, 

but  only  occasionally  of  recent  years  has  a  new  and  really 

appetizing  dish  been  placed  before  playgoers. 

^°^ f"w^^^^^    In  other  words,  successful  modem  plays  have 

been  few  and  far  between  for  a  decade. 
In  this  period  neither  the  older  school  of  modern  play- 
wrights, comprising  such  brilliant  men  as  Hermann  Suder- 
mann  and  Gerhard  Hauptmann,  Ludwig  Fulda  and  Fritz 
Engel,  George  Hirschfeld  and  Max  Halbe,  nor  the  younger 
school,  comprising,  to  mention  a  few  names,  Frank  Wedekind, 
Herbert  Eulenberg  and  Otto  Falckenberg,  has  given  much 
of  note  to  the  stage. 

In  some  quarters  this  dramatic  dullness  is  attributed  to  the 
scathing  criticisms  to  which  pla5nvrights  and  plays  are  sub- 
jected in  the  press.     Perhaps  the  critics  have 
Scathing        succeeded  in  the  same  way  as  the  surgeon 
who  announced   that   **  the   operation   itself 
was  quite  successful,  but  the  patient  has  unfortunately  died." 
Whatever  is  the  cause,  authors  seem  to  hesitate  now  to  write 
for  the  stage. 

Dramatic  critics  in  Germany,  it  is  true,  deal  with  plays  in 
a  terribly  earnest  manner.  They  never  look  at  a  piece  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  public,  but  analyse  it  and  dissect  it 
from  the  literary  and  schoolmasterly  standpoints.  This,  of 
course,  is  all  well  and  good  !  Everybody  desires  to  have 
passable  literature  presented  to  him  from  the  stage,  and 
nobody  would  wish  for  illiterate  nonsense  ;  but  it  is  a  fact  that 
ninety-nine  people  out  of  every  hundred  go  to  the  theatre  to 
be  entertained,  and  do  not  regard  the  play  from  the  hterary 
and  schoolmasterly  standpoints  at  all,  but  from  the  point  of 
view  of  its  human  interest. 

217 


218  Germany  of  the  Germans 

Without    endeavouring    to    cast    the    entire    blame    for 
the  present  dullness  on  the  critics,  it  must  be  confessed  that 
the  playgoer  of  to-day  is  greatly  influenced 
^Playgoers'"     ^^         criticism  in  his  morning  newspaper  of 
a  new  piece.     This  was  not  so  when  the  plays 
now  regarded  as  classics  were  written.      These  were  made 
successful  or  unsuccessful  by  the  direct  verdict  of  the  play- 
goers of  the  period.     Professional  critics  had  not  been  evolved 
then !     That  the  popular  verdict  of  those  days  was  reliable 
is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  classics  still  attract,  despite 
some  of  them  containing  defects  which  would  prove  their 
undoing  if   they  were   to   be    produced   for  the  first  time 
to-day. 

Schiller,  Goethe,  Lessing,  Hebbel,  Kleist  and  Grillparzer 
maintain  their  position  as  providers  of  the  real  stock-in-trade 
of  the  German  theatre.  Shakespeare,  too,  holds  a  place — in 
fact,  he  is  more  often  played  in  Germany  than  in  England. 

Twenty  years  ago,  following  the  long  period  of  depression 

succeeding  the  war,  there  was  a  great  revival  of  the  drama. 

The  foundation  of  the  "  Free  Theatre  "  was 

Vl^  "  Free      ^j^^  ^j.g^  movement  towards  introducing  fresh 

Theatre.  r         ■,    -i 

life.     The  undertakmg,   which  was  founded 

in  1889,  was  under  the  auspices  of  Maximilian  Harden,  Leo 
Berg,  Otto  Brahm,  and  a  number  of  authors,  journalists  and 
others  who  desired  to  have  a  stage  on  which  all  kinds  of  plays 
would  have  a  hearing,  and  also  to  provide  a  stepping-off  place 
for  the  new  naturalistic  literary  school.  The  venture  was  a 
great  success  and  play  after  play  of  real  merit  was  introduced 
to  the  public,  until  German  drama  really  began  to  occupy 
a  high  place  once  more. 

Then  the  German  public  began  to  backslide  and  a  more 
degenerate  taste  became  apparent.  The  production  of  good 
new  plays  began  to  decrease,  until  the  call  in  the  capital  was 
almost  entirely  for  light  and  sensational  works  in  preference 
to  more  substantial  pieces.  It  became  old-fashioned  to 
express  a  liking  for  the  more  serious  works. 


Dramatic  Fare  219 

Another  theatrical  novelty  introduced  at  about  the  same 
period  as  the  "  Free  Theatre  "  was  the  "  Free  People's  Stage," 
which  was  an  effort  on  the  part  of  the  working 
"  ^^|f  ^*^?P^^''  classes  to  develop  a  theatre  of  their  own,  in 
which  they  could  satisfy  their  longing  to 
enjoy  at  least  some  of  the  culture  of  the  time,  which  was 
denied  to  them  owing  to  the  high  prices  of  the  ordinary 
theatre.  The  idea  was  so  fruitful  that  the  society  now 
numbers  some  16,000  or  17,000  members.  The  principles  on 
which  the  society  works  are  of  the  most  democratic  kind. 
The  membership  fees  are  extremely  moderate.  Various 
theatres  are  rented,  generally  on  Sunday  afternoons,  but  also 
at  other  times  when  they  are  free,  and  the  seats  are  distributed 
by  lot  to  the  members.  Some  of  the  best  actors  are  engaged 
and  the  best  plays  are  produced  in  excellent  style.  Members 
of  the  society  are  chosen  to  carry  out  the  necessary  service  in 
the  theatres,  where,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  society  is 
strictly  private  and  the  audiences  confined  to  its  members, 
the  police  censorship  on  plays  cannot  be  exercised.  There  is 
never  any  disturbance,  because  of  the  admirable  arrange- 
ments for  order,  and  the  movement  has  had  a  wonderful 
effect  on  the  working  classes  in  consequence  of  its  offering 
them  sensible  amusement  and  an  opportunity  of  improving 
themselves  during  a  time  which  might  otherwise  have  been 
devoted  to  less  elevating  pursuits. 

Berlin,  by  reason  of  its  rapid  increase  in  population  in  the 

meantime  and   the   number  of    theatres  it    possesses,   had 

developed  into  a  theatrical  centre.    Its  word 

Berlin  a        j^a.s  become  law  for  the  German  drama,  so  that 

Centre.         every   play   produced  in   the   country   must 

obtain  the  approval  of  the  capital. 

The  taste  of  Berlin  having,  as  has  been  seen,  turned  to 
farce  and  musical  comedy,  the  rest  of  the  country,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  where  the  municipalities  maintain  the  theatres 
and  regular  stock  companies,  has  taken  to  the  same  dishes. 

Authors,  therefore,  have  not  obtained  much  encouragement 


220  Germany  of  the  Germans 

to  provide  other  fare,  and  the  art  of  play-writing  has  declined 
to  a  great  extent. 

One  great  lack  of  the  modern  German  stage  is  historical 
drama,  depicting  the  story  of  the  nation  in  recent  times. 
The  esteem  in  which  absolute  exactitude  of 
Lack  of  detail  is  held  is  probably  responsible  for  this 
Drama.  ^^^k,  so  little  room  being  left  for  the  imagina- 
tion of  the  author  that  he  fears  to  venture  on 
this  line  of  play.  Another  reason  is  the  prohibition  in  Ger- 
many against  presenting  on  the  stage  anything  in  reference 
to  princely  personages  who  have  lived  since  Frederick  the 
Great.  Dramatists  are  thus  greatly  restricted  and,  in  fact, 
since  Schiller  no  great  dramatist  has  entered  this  field. 

Society  and  problem  plays,  on  the  other  hand,  are  presented 
in  abundance. 

French  plays  or  adaptations  of  French  plays  are  more 
favoured  in  Germany  than  those  written  by  German  drama- 
tists, because  the  French  playwrights  are  not  so  artificial  as 
their  German  colleagues.  The  French  take  an  incident  in 
real  life  and  work  it  up  into  a  play  or  they  select  a  subject 
in  which  everybody  is  interested  at  the  moment  and  write  a 
play  round  it,  and  by  putting  it  on  the  stage  bring  the  subject 
better  home  to  the  auditors  than  it  would  be  brought  by 
reading  about  it  in  the  journals. 

As  to  the  position  of  the  theatre  in  the  eyes  of  the  public 

authorities,  there  is  a  strong  feeling  in  favour  of  creating 

a  State  Theatre   and  also    a    real  national 

l^har?Hel      dramatic  school. 

Autnorities.  __  ..-...,  ,        ,      .  ,,    , 

The  municipalities  have  already  shown  their 

faith  in  the  theatre  as  a  factor  in  the  culture  of  the  people. 

In  Prussia  alone  thirty-nine  cities   own  municipal  theatres 

of  their  own  or  grant  subsidies  to  existing  private  theatres. 

The  sums  spent  on  the  drama  by  the  civic  representative 

bodies  vary  greatly.     In  Siegen,  for  instance,  a  subvention 

of  only  ;f50  annually  is  given  ;    while  in  Cologne,  which  has 

two  municipal  theatres,    the  yearly  cost  to  the  ratepayers  is 


Dramatic  Fare  221 

jf24,895.  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  whose  opera-house  and 
principal  theatre  are  public  property,  spends  £13,650  out  of 
the  town's  budget  on  providing  entertainment.  Barmen's 
city  theatre  costs  ;f5,950  a  year  to  maintain,  and  Dortmund 
expends  £6,242  yearly  on  its  theatre.  Other  notable  sub- 
ventions for  dramatic  purposes  are  granted  by  Essen,  £3,900  ; 
Elberfeld,  £3,830;  Aix-la-Chapelle,  £3,455;  Diisseldorf, 
£2,556  ;  Magdeburg,  £2,517  ;  Wiesbaden,  £4,352  ;  Breslau, 
£3,132;    Posen,  £1,280,  and  Bromberg,  £1,569. 

Berlin  possesses  at  the  present  moment  twenty-five  theatres, 
which  attract  on  weekdays  an  average  total  audience  of  from 
12,000  to  15,000,  and  on  Sunday  afternoons  and  evenings 
about  20,000. 

The  model  theatre  of  Germany  is  that  of  Cassel,  in  the 

neighbourhood  of  which  city  lies  Wilhelmshohe,  the  country 

seat  of  the  Emperor.     His  Majesty  opened 

Th^^e^        the  theatre  himself  in  August,  1909.     It  was 

built  at  a  cost  of  £150,000,  of  which  the  city 

subscribed   £65,000.     All   the   most   modern   improvements 

connected  with  acoustics,  stage  machinery  and  Hghting  have 

been  incorporated.     The  stage  is  surrounded  by  a  framework 

which  gives  every  scene  the  appearance  of  a  painted  picture. 

The  building  itself  is  a  delightful  specimen  of  the  Baroque 

style  of  architecture. 

The  favourite  classical  plays  of  the  German  stage  are  those 
of  Schiller,  whose  dramas  were  produced  no  fewer  than  1,441 
times  in  the  winter  season  of  1908-9.  "  William  Tell  "  was 
the  most  popular  of  his  works,  and  was  performed  on  292 
occasions.  Goethe,  whose  works  were  produced  705  times 
during  the  same  period,  occupies  the  next  place  among  native 
authors.  His  **  Faust  "  was  billed  213  times.  Shakespeare, 
however,  was  played  945  times,  "  The  Merchant  of  Venice," 
which  was  produced  120  times,  being  the  work  for  which  most 
preference  was  shown.  Lessing,  with  376  ;  Hebbel,  with  409  ; 
Grillparzer,  with  369  ;  Moli^re,  with  185  performances,  all 
enjoy  prominent  places  among  the  classics  in  Germany. 


222  Germany  of  the  Germans 

Among  modem  authors  Sudermann  took  the  lead  during 
the  same  season  with  1,202  performances.     Ibsen  was  pro- 
duced   876 ;      Gerhard    Hauptmann,     476 ; 
Abhors.        Blumenthal,    1,021;     Frau    von    Schonthan, 
931,  and  L'Arronge,  684  times.     The  three 
last-mentioned  are  on  the  repertory  of  all  the  municipal  and 
royal  theatres. 

The  individual  pieces  which  enjoyed  the  longest  runs,  not 
always  consecutive,  were  Wildenbruch's  "  Rabensteinerin," 
with  938  performances  ;  the  translation  of  the  French  comedy, 
"  Mademoiselle  Josette,  ma  femme,"  which  appeared  812 
times  ;  H.  Bernstein's  "  The  Thief,"  which  was  produced  on 
510  occasions,  and  "  Old  Heidelberg,"  477  times. 

The  person  most  in  view  among  modern  dramatic  authors 

is  Gerhard  Hauptmann,  who  was  born  in  1862  in  Silesia.     His 

first  leaning  as  a  youth  was  not  towards  the 

Gerhard         stage,  but  to  sculpture.     He  for  a  time  had 
xlauptmann.  ,.  t-»  i  •  ^ 

a  studio  m  Rome,  whither  he  had  gone   to 

study  the  ancient  masterpieces.  It  was  during  this  period 
that  he  made  his  first  literary  efforts,  in  the  shape  of  poetry. 
The  year  1886  was  the  turning-point  of  his  life,  for  then  he 
came  into  touch  with  some  of  the  pioneers  of  the  new  Hterary 
movement  towards  naturalism.  In  the  following  year  he 
published  a  realistic  novel,  "  Bahnwarter  Thiel,"  which  at 
once  showed  the  world  the  stuff  that  was  in  the  young  author. 
His  first  play,  "  Before  Sunrise,"  produced  privately  in  1889, 
awakened  the  interest  of  wide  circles  in  the  problem  of  alco- 
holism. He  was  at  that  time  greatly  influenced  by  Ibsen, 
and  in  his  following  plays  this  influence  comes  well  to  the  fore. 
His  "  Einsame  Menschen  "  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  pearls 
of  German  drama.  "  The  Weavers,"  however,  brought  him 
most  renown.  It  appeals  to  every  class  for  its  truth  and  its 
dramatic  effect.  It  won  success  at  once.  So  many  triumphs 
has  he  had  that  it  is  only  necessary  to  repeat  a  list  of  his 
works.  "  Hanneles  Himmelfahrt  "  and  "  Biberpelz  "  were 
succeeded  by  a  historical  drama,  "  Florian  Geyer,"  in  1895, 


Phoio  by 


HERR   HAUPTMANN 


'''  ^'    OF   THE  .  \ 

\  OF 


I 


Dramatic  Fare  223 


which,  although  treated  in  his  inimitable  style,  was  rather 
too  long  to  please  the  public  taste.  A  fairy  tale,  "  The 
Sunken  Bell,"  brought  him  almost  as  much  fame  as  "  The 
Weavers."  His  beautifully  written  "  Fuhrmann  Henschel  "  is 
a  piece  of  great  worth.  Other  plays  of  less  attraction,  but 
generally  possessing  splendid  technique,  have  since  been  pro- 
duced, and  more  may  yet  be  awaited  from  this  versatile  and 
masterful  author. 

Hermann  Sudermann's  renown  as  a  dramatist  equals  his 

fame  as  a  story-writer.     He  was  one  of  the  first  to  break  away 

from  the  current  of  uninteresting  reiteration 

and°Dr^atist.  '^^^^^    ^^^    cramping    Germany's   literature 

and  drama.     "  Die  Ehre,"  founded  on  the 

real  life  of  the  big  Germany  city  and  telling  a  story  that  at 

once  appealed  to  all  Germany — of  the  gulf  between  rich  and 

poor — made  his  name.     Some  of  his  other  most  successful 

plays  are  "  Das  Gliick  im  Winkel,"  "  Heimat,"  "  Sodom's 

Ende,"  and  the  more  recent  rather  French  "  Es  lebe  das  Leben." 

Max  Halbe,  with  his  "  Jugend,"  had  one  of  the  greatest 
theatrical  successes  in  Germany  in  the  last  half-century.  It 
deals  with  a  problem  certainly,  but  so  interestingly  and  deli- 
cately handled  that  it  cannot  offend  anyone's  susceptibilities. 
Other  of  Max  Halbe's  plays  have  also  been  well  received. 

Ernst  von  Wildenbruch,  the  recently  deceased  author,  gave 
to  Germany  a  considerable  number  of  romantic  plays,  in  which 
the  clash  of  weapons  mingled  with  heroic  words.  Almost  all 
of  his  work,  however,  is  devoted  to  a  glorification  of  the 
House  of  HohenzoUern,  Brandenburg  and  Berlin.  Among 
his  best  and  most  often  produced  works  are  "  Die  Quitzows  " 
and  "  Die  Haubenlerche." 

Ludwig  Fulda  has  won  more  success  as  an  adapter  of 

Rostand    and    Molidre    than    as    an    inde- 

^apter         pendent    dramatist,    although    some   of    his 

plays — for   instance,  "  Unter  Vier  Augen  " — 

have  taken  the  public  fancy.     All  his  writings  are  clever,  and 

their  dramatic  form  leaves  little  to  be  desired. 


I 


224  Germany  of  the  Germans 

Richard  Voss,  who  was  born  m  1851,  in  Pomerania,  under- 
took the  handling  for  the  stage  of  social  problems  long  before 
the  movement  was  taken  up  by  other  authors.  He  did  his 
work  very  well  at  the  beginning,  especially  in  "  Eva,"  but 
later  fell  off  greatly,  and  from  his  prolific  pen  very  little  of 
value  remains  to  the  stage. 

Frank  Wedekind,  a  sceptic  and  cynic,  has  attracted  much 
attention  by  the  manner  in  which  he  deals  with  life's  problems. 
His  satires  of  men  and  women  are  clever,  but  far-fetched. 
**  Friihlingserwachen  "  is  his  best-known  work. 

Leo  Berg  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  "  Free  Theatre," 

which  has  helped  so  much  to  bring  modem  authors  to  the 

front.     He  is  imbued  with  a  thorough  literary 

tlie^Moderns  ^P^^^^  ^^^  ^^^  published  a  number  of  serious 
critical  works. 

Friedrich  Spielhagen  deals  well  with  themes  in  which 
democracy  and  aristocracy  are  involved,  and  in  which  he 
takes  up  the  cudgels  for  the  proletariat. 

Max  Dreyer  has  given  the  stage  many  trivial  but  attractive 
pieces,  full  of  local  colour. 

Georg  Engel  is  one  of  the  "  modern  "  dramatists  who  has 
had  much  success. 

Otto  Brahm  is  recognised  as  Germany's  leading  theatrical 
director.  He  was  in  the  advance  guard  of  the  reform  move- 
ment in  hterature  and  the  drama,  which  led  to  the  foundation 
of  the  "  Free  Theatre,"  under  the  auspices  of  Maximilian 
Harden,  Leo  Berg,  Otto  Brahm  and  others.  He  has  published 
studies  on  Ibsen,  Gottfried  Keller,  etc.,  which  are  full  of  talent. 

Although  German  actors  and  actresses,  as  a  general  rule, 

are  very  conscientious  and  play  their  roles  in  the  most  efficient 

_  .  manner,  great  genius  is  at  the  present  time 

German  Actors.  -xur        j  xi./-  x  i-u 

not  to  be  found  on  the  German  stage.     The 

basis  of  their  art  is  thoroughly  sound,  but  is  not  seconded  by 

any  really  striking  talent. 

The  system  of  engaging  the  actors  for  a  period  of  years  at 

most  of  the  theatres  makes  for  a  better  general  company 


Dramatic  Fare  225 

than  is  the  case  in  countries  where  an  actor-manager  or 
actress-manageress  merely  engages  other  people  to  fill  the 
stage,  while  he  or  she  takes  the  only  real  role  in  a  piece  specially 
written  for  the  purpose. 

In  Germany  the  players  work  much  more  together  and 
consequently  the  performances  are  always  up  to  a  good 
average,  the  smaller  parts  being  studied  just  as  carefully  in 
regard  to  detail  as  the  more  important  ones. 

The  actors  are  much  more  true  to  nature  than  they  were  at 
one  time,  and  they  are  assisted  generally  by  excellent 
costuming  and  stage  decoration. 

It  is  really  remarkable  to  discover  on  investigation  how 
many  of  the  leading  players  are  of  Austrian  birth. 

Agnes  Sorma  stands  out  as  the  leading  actress  of  Germany 

of  recent  years.     She  has  scored  many  triumphs  during  her 

career,  creating  characters  in  numerous  plays 

^Ac?e^i*"*    of  aU  the  modem  dramatists. 

Richard  Alexander,  of  the  Residenz  Theatre 
in  Berlin,  is  among  the  leading  humorous  actors  of  Germany. 
He  has  no  rival  in  his  rendering  of  the  comic  characters  in  the 
Hght  French  pieces  so  much  in  favour. 

Alexander  Barthel,  of  Frankfort-on-Main,  holds  a  high 
position  as  a  portrayer  of  dramatic  heroes  and  ideal  characters. 

Among  the  other  players  of  German  birth  who  have  had 
considerable  success  in  the  various  cities  of  the  Empire  in 
recent  times  may  be  mentioned  Adalbert  Matkowsky,  Rosa 
Bertens,  Ferdinand  Bonn,  Albert  Bozenhard,  Paula  Conrad, 
Carl  Grube,  Gertrud  Giers,  Johanna  Hanfstangl,  Otto  Sommer- 
storff,  Meta  Illing,  Else  Lehmann,  Ludwig  Stahl,  Elise  Sauer, 
Arthur  Vollmer,  Ernst  Kraus,  Emanuel  Reicher,  Irene 
Triesch,  Paul  Lindau  and  Rudolf  Schildkraut. 

There  are  many  others,  probably  equally  good  in  their 
profession  and  equally  popular  with  the  public. 

According  to  the  ofiicial  statistics,  no  fewer  than  90,699 
persons  gain  a  living  from  the  theatre  and  music  and 
public  performances  of  aU  kinds  in  Germany. 

15— (2391) 


228  Germany  of  the  Germans 

professors  filled  with  historical  artistic  lore,  but  with  few 
independent  ideas.  They  regarded  the  doctrines  of  the 
schools  as  a  brake  on  the  wheels  of  real  art. 

Like  most  revolutionaries,  the  secessionists  went  too  far. 
Their  nerves  became  unstrung,  and  they  could  not  control 
themselves.  The  consequence  is  that,  instead  of  succeeding 
in  their  reforming  aim,  they  have  only  brought  about  a  state 
of  anarchy.  The  sudden  release  from  a  depressing  collectivism 
has  led  to  an  over-driven  individualism. 

Prince  Ludwig  of  Bavaria,  at  the  centenary  of  the  Munich 

Art  Academy  in  1909,  spoke  some  very  plain  words  against 

the   exaggeration   of   some   of   the   German 

^"waiS*^^^^  impressionists.  He  told  the  artists  present 
that :  "  Art  should  be  comprehensible  to  all, 
but  many  so-called  works  of  art  are  mere  dabs  of  colour 
without  form." 

The  Emperor,  too,  has  uttered  very  severe  reproofs  on 
several  occasions. 

Yet  this  anarchic  condition  is  possibly  only  a  stage  on 
the  way  to  the  new,  as  yet  undeveloped  national  style  that 
the  revolutionaries  hope  to  evolve.  Its  extravagances 
may  be  simply  the  outcome  of  the  striving  to  attain  some- 
thing of  which  the  producers  themselves  are  not  certain  ; 
but  which  will,  when  it  does  take  shape,  be  worthy  of  their 
efforts. 

It  is  surprising,  in  the  land  of  traditional  sentimentality, 

that  the  number  of  briUiant  artists  should  be  so  limited, 

more   especially  as  the  people   as   a  whole 

Artiste  Few  ^^^  ^^^^  confidence  in  itself.  It  is,  how- 
ever, a  fact  that  modern  Germany  has  not 
produced  many  artists  who  have  told  a  story  to  the  world  on 
canvas. 

With  so  many  centres  of  art  teaching — Munich,  Diisseldorf, 
Carlsruhe,  Cassel,  Leipzig,  Dresden,  Frankfort,  Konigsberg, 
Weimar,  Hamburg  and  Berlin — great  genius  is  singularly 
lacking.    Which  of  these  centres  is  the  most  important  or 


Art  and  Architecture  229 

the  most  fruitful  is  a  matter  of  opinion.  Munich  and  Diissel- 
dorf  are  the  best  known,  but  each  of  the  others  has  its  devotees. 
Of  late  years  Northern  Germany  has  gained  much  ground  in 
artistic  repute. 

Piloty,  of  Munich,  one  of  the  best-known  German  artists 

of  the  nineteenth  century,  is  credited  with  having  taught 

Germans  what  they  know  of  painting.     He 

^'p^nUn"^^*    had  such  a  good  reputation  that  he  drew 

pupils  from  every  country,  and  gave  to  them 

an  excellent  foundation  without  any  limitations  of  style. 

Munich's  Bohemianism  is  a  catchword  in  artistic  circles, 

but  many  a  well-known  artist  has  received  his  training  there. 

Among  them  are  Arnold  Bocklin,  who  was  in  reality  a 

Swiss.     He  is  generally  regarded  as  a  genius  in  Germany,  but 

there  are  some  who  consider  him  over-rated 

^GeS'us^^      and    declare    that    he    spoilt    his    excellent 

designs  by  his  exaggerated  colouring. 
Franz   Stuck,   a  Munich  secessionist,   has  a  very  warm 
imagination,  but  a  peculiar  temperament,  and  his  drawing  is 
crude,  so  that  he  is  sometimes  disappointing. 

Also  from  the  Munich  school  came  Wilhelm  von  Leibi,  one 
of  the  best  liked  of  modern  German  painters.  His  pictures 
show  a  strong  love  for  the  reproduction  of  the  truth.  No 
detail  seems  to  have  escaped  his  attention,  yet  his  canvases 
are  delightfully  simple.  Many  of  them  depict  peasant  life  and 
hunting  scenes. 

Ferdinand  von  Reznicek,  who  started  out  to  be  a  painter 
in  Munich,  soon  found  out  his  real  bent  and  became  an  illus- 
trator,  in  which  branch  of  art  he  rapidly 

Til   ^*5^        attained    world-wide    renown    through    his 
Illustrator.  ■     ,<  o-       ^•  -     •  „ 

drawmgs  m      bimplicissmius. 

Ludwig  Thiersch,  who  died  in  1909,  was  a  very  prolific 

historical  and  religious  painter  of  the  Munich  school.  Churches 

in  practically  every  European  country  contain  frescoes  by 

him,  and  the  Greek  church  in  London  possesses  some  of  his 

oil  paintings. 


230  Germany  of  the  Germans 

Franz  von  Lenbach,  undoubtedly  the  finest  modem  por- 
traitist in  Germany,  has  painted  nearly  all  the  crowned  heads 
in    the    Empire,    as    well    as   many   of    the 
P^ri^^tist      renowned  beauties. 

Fritz  von  Kaulbach  is  noted  for  his  great 
delicacy  of  handling.  He  is  much  sought  after  as  a 
portraitist. 

Walter  Firle,  also  of  Munich,  has  turned  out  many  clear 
and  well-coloured  pictures  of  harmonious  taste.  He  has  done 
many  portraits. 

Georg  Sauter,  who  lives  in  England,  is  a  Bavarian.  He  is 
devoted  to  portraits  and  figure  pictures.  He  has  been  much 
influenced  by  the  Scottish  and  French  schools. 

From  among  the  Berlin  artists  several  have  found  con- 
siderable   favour.     For    instance,    Arthur    Kaempf,    of    the 
Academy  of  Arts,  is  a  talented  portraitist, 
who   has   painted  the   Emperor  with   much 
success.     A  great  future  is  predicted  for  him. 

Max  Liebermann  was  first  president  of  the  Berlin  Secession, 
of  which  he  soon  became  the  recognised  leader,  but  which  he 
has  now  deserted.  He  has  executed  many  fine  works,  some 
of  which  have  been  acquired  for  the  public  museums. 

Alexander  Schmidt-Michelsen,  who  only  recently  died, 
was  a  very  gifted  Berlin  artist,  whose  works  are  distributed 
over  a  wide  range  of  public  galleries. 

Walter  Leistikow,  who  died  in  1909,  was  another  BerHn 
secessionist  with  rare  talent. 

Ferdinand  Hodler  has  carried  out  some  really  fine  work  in 
the  newer  style  of  the  Berlin  Secession. 

Willy  Hamacher,  one  of  the  most  promising  of  the  Berlin 
school,  who  died  in  1909  at  the  early  age  of  forty,  devoted  most 
of  his  attention  to  seascapes  portraying  the  life  of  the  North 
and  Baltic  seas.  His  colouring,  which  he  owed  to  the 
impressions  received  during  a  sojourn  in  Italy,  filled  his 
pictures  with  a  brightness  hardly  to  be  seen  in  northern 
climes. 


Art  and  Architecture  231 

Ludwig  Knaus,  a  genre  painter  of  Diisseldorf  and  Berlin, 
who  combines  the  hghter  touch  and  sureness  of  the  French 
school  with  deep  German  feeling,  has  held  a  high  place  in 
art  in  Germany  for  many  years.  His  works  appear  in  many 
public  galleries  in  Germany  and  America. 

Count  Leopold  von  Kalckreuth  is  a  very  prominent  figure 
in  the  German  art  world  of  to-day.  He  studied  in  Diisseldorf, 
Weimar  and  Munich. 

The  Carlsruhe  school  has  several  representatives  who 
attract  the  public  eye  just  now.  Hans  Thoma,  a  portrait 
and  genre  painter  as  well  as  a  landscapist,  excels  in  the  latter 
branch.  His  pictures  are  reproduced  in  print  probably  more 
often  than  those  of  any  other  German  painter. 

Another  follower  of  this  school  is  Edward  von  Gebhardt, 
who  is  classed  in  the  front  rank  of  religious  painters. 

Wilhelm  Triibner,  of  Carlsruhe,  a  secessionist,  is  an  eminent 
portraitist. 

Max  Klinger,  of  the  same  city,  is  sculptor,  painter  and 
engraver,  displaying  great  talents  in  all  three  branches. 

From  Dresden  comes  Fritz  Uhde,  a  painter  of  several 
notable  religious  pictures.     He  was  almost  entirely  self-taught. 

D     d      Art  Ludwig    von    Hofmann,    from    the   same 

town,  is  a  colourist,  devoted  to  the  newer 
idealism. 

Leopold  Bode,  who  died  in  Frankfort  in  1906,  was  a  roman- 
cist  of  the  greatest  distinction.  He  executed  a  large  number 
of  excellent  water-colours  and  charcoal  drawings,  depicting 
German  folk-lore,  while  his  oil  paintings  of  forest  scenery  in 
Switzerland,  the  Tyrol  and  Bavaria  are  much  admired. 

As  in  other  countries,  there  are  also  in  Germany  hundreds 

of  so-called  artists  who  imagine  that  by  covering  a  certain 

space  of  canvas  with  a  certain  quantity  of 

Artiste  paint    every    year    they  are  adding  to  the 

artistic  production  of  the  nation.      This    is 

an  unavoidable  occurrence,  generally  brought  about  by  lack 

of  frankness  on  the  part  of  well-meaning  friends. 


232  Germany  of  the  Germans 

As  regards  sculpture,  Germany  has  suffered  from  a  similar 
movement  of  unrest  of  late  years  as  in  painting.  The  result 
g    .  is  that,  although  many  hundreds  of   public 

monuments  and  statues  have  been  erected, 
the  artistic  eye  only  finds  occasional  comfort  in  the  sight 
of  a  really  excellent  work.  Many,  of  course,  find  admira- 
tion from  the  followers  of  certain  schools,  and  a  great  number 
have  merits  of  one  kind  or  another ;  but,  when  the  work  is 
considered  as  a  whole,  there  is  much  to  be  desired. 

Some  sculptors  of  the  modern  school  naturally  stand  out 
above  their  fellows,  and  this  is  the  case  with  Robert  Diez, 
of  Dresden,  and  Reinhold  Begas,  of  Berlin,  who  both  have  not 
only  done  excellent  work  themselves,  but  have  passed  on  their 
ideas  to  many  pupils. 

Robert  Diez,  a  Saxon,  is  famed  for  his  monumental  foun- 
tains in  Dresden,  and  as  a  very  successful  professor  of  sculp- 
.    -  ture  at  the  Academy  there.     He  has  also  a 

fine  Bismarck  monument  in  that  town  and  a 
group  representing  "  The  Warrior's  Return  "  in  Brunswick. 

Heinrich  Epler,  another  Dresden  professor,  displays  a 
remarkably  reaHstic  talent  in  some  of  his  works,  for  instance 
his  group  of  "  Two  Mothers  "  in  Dresden. 

Reinhold  Begas,  the  master  of  most  of  the  German  sculp- 
tors of  the  present  day,  first  made  his  name  through  his 
excellent  monument  of  Schiller  in  front  of 

^J''^^^^  the  Royal  Theatre  in  Berhn.     Later  he,  with 
Master.  ,  r  r      i  ■,    ,  ^    i  xi 

the  assistance  of  other  sculptors,  executed  the 

great  monument  of  the  Emperor  William  I  in  front  of  the 

castle. 

Paul  Ludwig  Cauer  collaborated  with  Reinhold  Begas  on 
the  same  monument  and  also  executed  the  monument  of  Karl 
V  in  the  Siegesallee. 

Johannes  Gotz  also  collaborated  with  Begas  on  the  Emperor 
WiUiam  monument.  He  has,  besides,  a  statue  of  Joachim  I 
in  the  Siegesallee  and  some  works  purchased  by  the  National 
Gallery. 


PROF.    LUDWIG   KXAUS 


Art  and  Architecture  233 

Hans  Magnussen,  a  pupil  of  Begas,  is  the  sculptor  of 
innumerable  Bismarck  monuments. 

Walter  Sch'ott  is  among  the  most  popular  sculptors  of  the 
capital,  where  he  has  made  a  large  number 
Bismarck       ^^  busts  of  leading  men  in  all  branches  of 
public  life. 

Max  Baumbach  is  noted  for  several  fine  busts  and  two 
monster  works,  the  monument  of  Emperor  Frederick  on  the 
battlefield  of  Worth  and  an  equestrian  statue  of  King  Albert 
of  Saxony  in  Dresden. 

Hugo  Wilhelm  Schafer  has  devoted  himself  mostly  to  heroic 
statues  of  great  men,  many  of  which  are  to  be  found  in  public 
squares  in  various  cities. 

Max  Kruse  is  famous  for  his  group  of  Marathon  runners  in 
the  Berlin  National  Gallery. 

Adolf  Hildebrand's  fame  as  a  sculptor  is  widespread.     His 

monumental  fountain  in  Munich  is  an  entirely  harmonious 

composition.     He  has  chiselled  many  busts 

^plmr^"^      of  well-known  personalities. 

Fritz  Klimpsch  is  one  of  the  talented  younger 
men,  who  collaborated  in  the  designs  of  the  Reichstag  building. 

Emil  Hundrieser  has  produced  several  monuments  of 
former  Emperors  and  great  statesmen  in  different  cities. 

From  the  Munich  school  has  come,  among  others,  Hermann 

Hahn,    who   has    done    some    delightful    bronze    statuettes, 

besides  excellent  monuments  of  Moltke,  Lizst, 

^^Sctfoof  ""^     and  other  celebrities. 

Eduard  Beyrer,  also  of  Munich,  is  much 
influenced  by  the  classics.  He  made  his  name  by  a  memorial 
to  Roon,  in  Krabnitz. 

Georg  Busch,  of  Munich,  devotes  his  chisel  to  groups  of 
children  and  religious  work. 

Adolf  Briitt  does  a  considerable  amount  of  artistic  bronze 
work,  but  has  also  carved  some  excellent  monumental  works 
in  Kiel,  Altona  and  BerHn. 

Christian  Peter  Breuer,  who  has  a  statue  of  the  Elector 


234  Germany  of  the  Germans 

Sigismund  in  the  famous  Siegesallee  of  Berlin,  has  also  given 

excellent  specimens  of  imaginative  work. 

Ludwig  Manzel  has  a  monumental  fountain  in  Minden,  a 

national  monument  of  Duke  Friedrich  of  Anhalt-Dessau,  and 

the  reliefs  of  the  Emperor  William  I  Tower  in  Grunewald. 

Otto  Lessing  has  executed  many  worthy  busts  of  celebrated 

men. 

Many  of  the  younger  men  have  at  times  done  work  which 

displays  considerable  talent  and  gives  hope  for  the  future. 

With  the  spread  of  education  interest  in   art   naturally 

extends  day  by  day,  and  the  public  galleries 

GaHeries         ^^^  museums  increase  in  importance  owing 

to  the  general  taste  so  rapidly  improving. 

The  museums  and  galleries  of  Germany  have  become  of 

international  significance,  not  only  for  the  masterpieces  they 

contain,  but  as  a  consequence  of  the  complete- 

o  p^®^*        ness  of  their  classification.  A  great  reform  has 
Keiorm.  .    .         ,  .  i        t*     /• 

been   effected   m   this   respect   by   Professor 

Wilhelm  Bode  and  Professor  von  Tschudi.  Professor  Bode, 
director  of  the  Royal  Museum  in  Berlin,  is  at  the  present 
moment  one  of  the  leading  lights  of  the  art  world.  He  has  done 
much  to  enrich  and  develop  the  German  collections,  in  which 
he  is  aided  by  liberal  grants  of  money  from  the  authorities. 

Professor  von  Tschudi,  who  is  now  the  warden  of  all  the 
public  art  treasures  of  Bavaria,  is  an  Austrian  by  birth.  He 
had  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  organisation  of  the  Berlin 
art  galleries,  with  which  he  was  connected  for  more  than  a 
quarter  of  a  century. 

Germany  has  no  great  galleries  in  any  way  to  be  compared 

with  the  French  Louvre,  the  Italian  Palazzo  Pitti  or  the 

British  Museum  and  National  Gallery,   but 

^cJlfec^fo'Sr^   there  are  aU  over  the  country  innumerable 

smaller  collections  with  an  admirable  selection 

orartistic  works. 

•  The  collections  of  Dresden,  Munich,  Nuremberg,  Stuttgart, 
Frankfort  and  other  cities  are  world-famous. 


f^^ 


"<J 


OP  THE 


Of 


Art  and  Architecture  235 

Leading  German  artists  seem  to  be  of  opinion  that  the 
possession  of  an  extensive  collection  of  old  masters  does  not 
tend  to  increase  the  artistic  sense  of  the  public,  which  is  just 
as  well  pleased  with  good  copies  of  the  originals.  It  is  probable 
that  the  idea  will  be  carried  out  of  forming  a  great  collection 
of  copies  of  all  the  works  of  the  great  masters  gathered  together 
in  a  central  institution. 

Private  collectors,  who  are  becoming  very  numerous  and 

far-seeing,  have  succeeded  in  acquiring  many  old  masters. 

Rembrandt,    Rubens,    Titians,   Hals,   Botti- 

Private  jj-    Qoya    Stozzi,  Verspronck,  are  all  well 

Collectors.  '         /    '  .  '         v 

represented  m  private  houses. 

Arts  and  crafts  schools  under  the  auspices  of  State  or  city 
exist  in  nearly  every  district,  and  the  pupils  receive  there  a 
generous  artistic  education  for  very  small  fees.  The  system 
of  teaching  is,  however,  rather  mechanical,  and  young  artists, 
once  they  have  finished  their  course  of  instruction,  find  it 
difficult  to  break  away  from  the  routine  and  display  an 
individuality  which  would  distinguish  them  from  the  mediocre. 

In  architecture  there  has,  in  the  last  two  or  three  decades, 

been  a  wonderful  revival,  principally  brought  about  by  the 

.    , .  remarkable  development  of  the  cities  of  the 

Architecture,      -p, 

Empire. 

In  the  newer  districts  of  the  big  cities,  the  varied  styles  of 

the  houses  at  first  seem  bewildering,  but  further  acquaintance 

renders  the   variety  almost  charming  and  the   absence   of 

monotony  gives  the  streets  a  more  cheery  aspect  than  they 

would  possess  if  all  the  buildings  were  alike,  as  they  are  in 

some  places. 

The  Romantic,  German  Renaissance  and  Baroque  styles  of 

architecture  are  still  mostly  depended  on  in  the  construction 

of  new  public  edifices  and  the  great  buildings 

^*U^?^^^       rendered  necessary  by  the  introduction  of  the 

gigantic  modem  stores  in  the  cities,  but  utihty 

and  comfort  in  most  instances  take  the  place  of  a  fixed  style. 

Outside  the  towns  architects  are  searching  for  modifications 


236  Germany  of  the  Germans 

of  the  recognised  styles  in  the  construction  of  villas  and 
country  residences,  and  it  must  be  said  that  some  of  them 
meet  with  great  success  in  erecting  houses  which  accord  with 
the  picture  of  the  surroundings. 

In  some  cases  new  structures,  even  of  the  most  important 
national  character,  have  been  given  a  pretentious  appearance 
owing  to  a  combination  of  massiveness  with  meretricious 
ornament. 

The  use  of  iron  in  building  has  brought  about  a  total  change 

in  the  architectural  idea,  which  is  gradually  developing  into 

what  will  at  some  future  time  become  a  fixed 

^''°"s^k.''^"    style.     The  great  stores  now  being  erected 
in  every  city  have  adopted  a  style  of  perpen- 
dicular lines,  which  permits  the  entrance  of  plenty  of  light 
and  gives  an  impression  of  great  roominess,  while  the  buildings 
in  many  instances  are  not  lacking  in  artistic  appearance. 

The  control  of  building  by  the  municipal  authorities,  who 
must  pass  all  plans  before  a  brick  or  a  stone  may  be  laid,  has 
killed  much  of  the  old  individuality,  but  has  improved  the 
general  appearance  of  cities.  Public  control  was  introduced 
to  check  the  rapacity  of  speculative  builders,  but  in  the  opinion 
of  many  it  went  somewhat  too  far,  and  even  the  authorities 
have  recognised  that  the  system  has  demerits,  and  they  now 
in  many  cases  call  in  artistic  aid  to  advise  them  in  their 
decisions. 

In  the  older  cities,  some  of  which  still  remain  in  their 

original  completeness,  with  picture-like  effect,  the  authorities 

insist  on  all  new  buildings  being  constructed 

^' cS"^     in  the  same  style. 

Both  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  Churches 
continue  their  adherence  to  the  Gothic  style  of  architecture, 
the  only  difference  between  them  being  in  the  internal  arrange- 
ments, which  in  the  Protestant  churches  are  much  simpler 
than  in  the  Catholic. 

Among  some  of  the  modem  edifices  worthy  of  mention  are 
King   Ludwig's   Bavarian   castles,    the   immense   Frankfort 


I'holo  by 


liilh 


THE   CATHEDRAL,    MAYENXE 


^^^-^^  ^H 


f  ^'    OP   THE 

\  OF 


Art  and  Architecture  237 

railway  station,  which  was  planned  by  Eggert ;  the  Imperial 
Parliament,  by  Paul  Wallot ;  the  Imperial  Supreme  Court 
at  Leipzig,  by  Ludwig  Hofmann ;  the  National 
E^ficS        Museum  in  Munich,  by  Seidl ;    the  Cologne 
Dom  Hotel,  the  Dresden  Zwinger,  the  Miinster 
Town  Hall,  and  a  large  number  of  banks  and  insurance  offices. 
The  demand  for  architects  has  met  with  rapid  response, 
the  excellent   schools  producing  many  capable  men  every 
year. 
^^Men^^^^""       Alfred     Messel,    whose    achievements    in 
architecture  are  almost  beyond  count,  died 
but  a  short  time  ago.     He  was  the  designer  of  many  town 
halls  and  Government  offices,  and  of  the  handsome  head- 
quarters of  great  industrial   and  commercial  undertakings 
which  have  sprung  up  with  such  rapidity  since  the  foundation 
of  the  Empire. 

Paul  Wallot,  since  the  construction  of  the  Imperial 
Parliament,  has  completed  the  Saxon  Registry  Office  in 
Dresden. 

Karl  von  Grossheim's  work  as  an  architect  is  known  all 
over  the  Empire.  Banks,  great  hotels  or  exhibition  buildings 
have  been  erected  by  him  in  nearly  every  city.  His  style  is 
always  historical  and  his  designs  are  well  carried  out. 

Heinrich  Kayser,  who  works  in  conjunction  with  Karl  von 
Grossheim,  is  a  much  sought-after  architect,  who  has  planned 
innumerable  public  edifices. 

Ludwig  Hoffmann  is  the  successor  of  Messel,  the  great  archi- 
tect of  Berlin,  and  in  his  hands  lies  the  future  architecture 
of  the  public  buildings  of  the  capital. 
^^chU^ct"  ^^^^    Griesebach    has    erected    churches, 

museums  and  mansions  in  many  cities  of 
Germany,  one  of  his  chief  works  being  the  St.  Peter's  Church 
in  Frankfort. 

Bruno  Schmitz  built  the  Imperial  Museum  in  Mannheim 
and  the  great  world-renowned  restaizrant,  the  "  Rheingold  '* 
in  Berlin. 


238  Germany  of  the  Germans 

Franz  Schwechten  planned  the  two  bridges  over  the  Rhine 
at  Cologne,  the  Imperial  Palace  in  Posen,  and  a  number  of 
churches. 

Hermann  Obrist  is  the  leader  of  the  present  school  of 
decorative  internal  architects. 

The  list  of  modem  architects  is,  of  course,  much  longer, 
and  many  men  besides  those  mentioned  have  achieved  more 
or  less  lasting  renown. 

To  mention  all  the  ancient  edifices  in  Germany  would  mean 
writing  the  history  of  the  nation.    A  few  of  the  more  important 
in  the  varying  styles  may,  however,  be  cited. 
Edifices*  Architecture  of  the  ancient  Romantic  style 

is  to  be  found  in  nearly  every  part  of  Germany. 
Naturally  most  of  the  edifices  of  this  style  are  of  a  religious 
character.  Many  of  them  date  from  the  eleventh  century. 
The  churches  of  St.  Michael,  consecrated  in  1033  and  rebuilt 
in  1185,  and  St.  Godard,  consecrated  in  1133,  both  in  Hildes- 
heim,  are  excellent  specimens.  In  Mayence,  Speier  and 
Worms,  too,  the  cathedrals,  built  respectively  at  the  end  of 
the  ninth  century,  1030  and  1171,  are  imposing  examples. 
Three  of  the  Cologne  churches,  St.  Maria,  St.  Martin  and  the 
Church  of  the  Apostles,  are  very  old  buildings  in  this  style. 
The  Bamberg  Cathedral,  too,  dates  first  from  1010,  but  has 
been  renovated  many  times,  while  Bonn  and  Limburg 
Cathedrals  are  variations  from  the  true  style. 

The  Gothic  style  is  well  represented  in  all  parts  with 
churches  dating  from  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries. 
Th  oirf  r  ff.-  ^^^  Ladies*  Church  in  Trier  was  built  from 
The  Old  Czothic.  J227  to  1243,  Freiburg  Minster  in  1250, 
Strassburg  Cathedral  in  1275,  Cologne  Cathedral  in  1248,  St. 
Katharine's  in  Oppenheim  in  1262,  Ulm  Cathedral  in  1377, 
Regensburg  Cathedral  in  1275,  St.  Lawrence's  and  St.  Sebald's 
in  Nuremberg  in  the  fourteenth  century,  besides  several 
others  in  North  and  South  Germany. 

Many  castles  and  palaces  are  built  in  the  Italian  Renais- 
sance of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.     Landshut 


Photo  by 


Frith 


CATHEDRAL,    FREIBURG 


<J^. 


Art  and  Architecture  239 

Residency  dates  from  1536-43  ;  old  Stuttgart  Castle,  from 

1553 ;    the    Munich    Residency,    from  1600-16 ;   Heidelberg 

Castle,  from  1601,  restored  in  1693 ;  Aschaff- 

RenSi^ce      ^^burg  Castle,  from  1605-13  ;  Dresden  Castle, 

enaissance.     ^^^^  ^^^^  ^  Hartenfels  Castle,  from  1532-44  ; 

and  Weimar's  princely  residence,  from  1553.  In  this  style 
also  are  the  town  halls  of  Rothenburg,  Strassburg,  Cologne, 
Liibeck,  Posen  and  Emden,  all  of  them  of  the  late  sixteenth 
century ;  while  those  of  Nuremberg,  Augsburg  and  Bremen 
date  from  the  seventeenth  century.  There  are  hundreds  of 
other  public  buildings  of  the  same  style,  especially  in  Southern 
Germany. 

The  Baroque  style  is  presented  in  nearly  all  its  variations, 

the  Roman  Baroque  being  more  prevalent  in  the  South,  in 

consequence   of   the   people    being   CathoHc, 

aroque.        -y^hiig  jn  the  North,  where  the  majority  are 

Protestants,  the  Dutch  Baroque  is  more  frequent. 

Of  the  Rococo  style  there  are  a  number  of  examples  in 
CarlsruhC;  Berlin,  Stettin,  Leipzig  and  Frankfort. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

PHILOSOPHY  AND  CULTURE 

German  philosophy  is,  with  German  literature,  art  and  music, 
in  a  transitional  stage,  philosophical   search  for  a  direction 
being  in  the  main  responsible  for  the  uncer- 
a  Wa^^        tainty  existing  in  the  other  branches  of  study. 
The  mode  of  thought  appears  to  be  return- 
ing to  the  same  way  as  was  taken  by  Kant,  after  having  under- 
taken all  kinds  of  trips  through  the  paths  of  rationalism, 
materialism,  sensualism  and  other  regions  of  study. 

There  exists  one  school  of  philosophers  who  are  endeavouring 
to  harmonize  the  philosophy  of  Kant,  Fichte  and  Hegel  with 
the  scientific  requirements  of  the  present  time  ;  while  others 
are  engaged  in  independent  efforts  to  work  out  a  system  of 
knowledge  from  fresh  standpoints. 

At  the  present  moment  there  is  a  great  gulf  between  modern 
culture  and  the  Christian  Church.     Both  art  and  literature 
have  in  great  measure   broken  away  from 
Great  Gulf       their  former  union  with  the  churches. 

People  in  general,  too,  are  looking  for  and 
demanding  a  new  ideal,  but  for  the  moment  cannot  find  it. 
The  great  thinkers  do  not  provide  one. 

The  working  classes  display  a  remarkable  interest  in  philoso- 
phical questions,  the  popular  courses  on  such  subjects  at  the 
universities  and  educational  institutes  being  always  crowded. 
Perhaps  the  best  method  of  obtaining  a  general  idea  of  the 
variations  of  thought  now  holding  the  field  will  be  to  quote 
some  of  the  leading  philosophers  whose  views  are  occupying 
public  attention  to-day. 
A  No  philosopher  since  Hegel  has  exerted  so  much  influence 

^- on  intellectual  life  in  Germany  as  Friedrich 

l^etetihe.       Nietzsche,  who  died  in  1900,  has  done. 

As  in  many  other  instances,  the  genius  of 
Nietzsche  remained  almost  entirely  unknown  during  his  active 

240 


Philosophy  and  Culture  241 

life.  It  was  only  just  before  the  terrible  mental  affliction 
took  complete  hold  of  him  that  any  attention  was  paid  to  his 
works,  and  even  of  this  appreciation  he  never  knew,  for  he 
did  not  recover  his  reason,  and  when  he  died  his  mind  was 
a  total  blank. 

He  published  many  brilliant  works  full  of  suggestive  ideas, 
in  which  he  complained  of  the  present  acceptation  of  progress, 
criticising  the  prevalent  hypocrisy  and  selfish- 
Works*  ^^^^  ^^^  stating  his  belief  in  human  destiny 
and  the  efforts  of  mankind  towards  it.  In 
"  Thoughts  out  of  Season  "  and  "  The  Birth  of  Tragedy  "  his 
effort  was  to  create  an  optimistic  conception  of  the  goal  of 
German  culture.  His  series  "  Human,  all  too  Human,"  "  The 
Dawn  of  Day  "  and  "  The  Merry  Science  "  break  sharply 
away  from  the  spirit  of  pessimism  which  had  hold  of  the  nation. 
They  are  all  very  sceptical  concerning  philosophy  and  atheistic 
in  their  tendency.  He  criticises  in  them  present-day  morals 
and  also  the  democratic  movement. 

Another  series  of  works,  "  Thus  Spake  Zarathustra," 
**  Beyond  Good  and  Evil,"  "  On  the  Genealogy  of  Morality," 
"  Wagner's  Fall  "  and  "  Heathen  Dusk,"  takes  the  same  line 
of  thought,  but  goes  still  farther ;  while  his  unfinished  work 
on  "  The  Reappraisement  of  all  Values  "  was  intended  as  a 
development  of  the   Zarathustran  teachings. 

He  was  an  opponent  of  the  theories  of  Kant.  He  contested 
the  idea  that  sympathy  with  others  could  alone  lead  to  salva- 
tion and  argued  for  inconsiderate  self-interest 

^''of^KanT''*  and  the  assertion  of  human  mastery.  He 
contended  that  the  strong  should  develop 
their  strength  and  not  sustain  the  weak.  He  favoured  the 
propagation  of  the  animal  spirit  in  man  as  an  assistance 
on  his  march  towards  his  final  intellectual  and  general 
development. 

As  a  popular  philosopher,  Ernst  Heinrich  Haeckel  has  done 
much  to  spread  the  dogma  that  Christianity  or  the  belief  in 
any  god  is  impossible  in  view  of  the  discoveries  of  science. 

16— (2391) 


242  Germany  of  the  Germans 

Haeckel  is  a  Darwinian  who  for  a  long  series  of  years  held 

the  chair  of  biology  at  the  University  of  Jena,  from  which 

he   recently   retired   into   private   life.     His 

^arwfnian^  books  on  important  biological  problems 
are  written  in  very  popular  style,  and  even  the 
ordinary  public  are  able  to  read  them  and  learn  much  from 
them. 

The  works  of  Haeckel  find  eager  readers  among  the  pupils 
of  the  higher  schools,  who  have  passed  the  stage  when  the 
catechism  was  all  they  had  given  them  and  they  were  told 
they  must  accept  it.  When  the  youths  read  the  works  of  the 
critical  philosophers  they  begin  in  many  cases  to  despair 
whether  they  can  ever  attain  a  solution  of  the  problems 
placed  before  them.  The  Church  is,  in  Haeckel's  view,  to 
blame  for  much  of  this.  Protestant  as  well  as  Catholic  simply 
say :  "  You  must  beheve."  They  do  not  attempt  to  reason, 
and  to-day  reason  for  faith  is  called  for. 

Rudolf  Eucken,  of  Jena,  who  is  a  practical  idealist,  has 

found  an  immense  number  of  disciples  to  follow  him  along  his 

path  of  thought,   which  takes  a  somewhat 

^  Ide^Hst^  different  direction  from  that  followed  by  many 
of  his  fellow  philosophers  of  the  present  day, 
but  which  certainly  appears  attractive  to  the  younger  genera- 
tion of  students.  He  himself  is  not  hesitant  in  calling  himself 
a  follower  of  Fichte  and  Kant  in  some  respects,  but  he  tends 
more  to  the  direction  of  man's  taking  an  active  part  in  the 
great  task  of  Hfe  instead  of  being  merely  here  in  order  to  carry 
out  some  pre-ordained  portion  of  Nature's  development 
without  himself  initiating  anything.  He  considers  man,  in 
fact,  as  more  than  a  mere  created  being.  He  is  here  to  do 
something  ;  to  help  the  world  on  while  he  is  here.  Professor 
Eucken,  who  is  a  very  prolific  writer,  has  been  awarded  the 
Nobel  prize  for  literature.  Eucken's  position  towards 
religion  is  that  none  of  the  established  religions  really  fills 
the  place  of  an  absolute  religion,  because  all  are  influenced 
more  or  less  by  the  current  of  ideas  of  the  times  in  which  they 


PROFESSOR   HAECKEL 


Philosophy  and  Culture  243 

were  founded.  He,  however,  recognises  that  all  of  them  help 
mankind  along  the  road  to  truth. 

Despite  the  tendency  of  the  time  towards  collectivism,  there 

is  mutiny  in  the  breasts  of  some  Germans  who  claim  an 

opportunity  for  individualism.     They  assert 

I?on''in"f       *^^*  *^^  efioTts  of  the  coUectivists,  although 

successful   in   many   directions   where   it   is 

recognised  that  only  good  can  come  from  generalization,  are 

destined  to  receive  a  check  before  they  reach  a  point  where 

everything  and  everybody  becomes  equal. 

Professor  Wilhelm  Windelband,  of  Heidelberg,  is  one  of  the 
philosophers  who  deal  with  the  struggle  between  individual- 
ism and  the  collectivism  of  the  present  day.  He  says :  "  There 
is  no  longer  that  self-training  of  personality  which  formerly 
existed.  Everywhere  there  is  collective  life — in  the  great 
industrial  works,  in  commerce,  in  science  and  art — ^the 
characteristic  of  all  of  which  is  to  sink  personality  into  system. 
Hegel's  words  have  come  true:  'The  masses  are  advancing.'  " 

As  has  been  seen  in  the  pages  on  the  subject  of  creeds,  the 

present  form  of  religion  appears  to  become  more  and  more 

unsatisfying  to  the  nation  as  a  whole,  and  the 

Form  of        people  devote  themselves  more  to  the  pursuit 

Unsatisfactory,   of  other  lines  of  culture,  to  science  and  to  the 

solution,  or  attempted  solution,  of  some  of 

the  pressing  economic  problems,  which  are  more  tangible 

and  present  to  their  view. 

Many  present-day  philosophers  have  taken  up  the  position 
towards  religion  that  the  good  that  religion  has  done  to  the 
world  is  known,  while  the  evil  that  might  come  from  its 
abolition  cannot  be  calculated.  It  is  therefore  much  better 
to  adopt  one  way  of  thinking  when  belief  and  morals  are 
concerned — namely,  to  adhere  to  the  ideals  of  the  religious 
teachings — but  in  other  directions  to  accept  the  realistic  proofs 
of  science.  The  result  of  this  is  in  some  respects  peculiar  : 
the  scientist  who  has  found  the  teachings  of  Holy  Writ  im- 
possible of  belief  in  consequence  of  the  discoveries  made  in  his 


244  Germany  of  the  Germans 

investigations  often  feels  a  longing  for  some  idealism  to  which 
he  can  attach  himself.     How  he  satisfies  this  desire  depends  on 
himself.     His  knowledge  that  he  has  a  conscience  and  some 
moving  power  within  him  gives  him  cause  for  reflection,  and 
he  often  utilises  his  scientific  knowledge  to  build  up  for  himself 
a  religion  of  his  own,  which  provides  him  with  an  ideal  up 
to  which  he  can  live. 
Theologists  argue  very  strongly  against  this  view. 
Professor  Bornhauser,  of  Marburg,  contests  the  ideals  of 
purely  human  personality  set  forth  by  some  philosophers 
and    declares    that    the    Christian    ideal    of 
Theologists      personality  embraces  all  that  is  worth  having. 
Arguments.       %^u     ru  ■  i-         u  i  v,       • 

The  Christian,  he  says,  always  has  m  prayer 

to  God  a  source  from  which  he  can  renew  his  strength. 

Professor  Schwarz  says  :  "All  culture  is  as  nothing  without 
religion.  Economic  development  means  the  sharpening  of 
the  differences  between  rich  and  poor  ;  legal  development  the 
differences  between  master  and  servant ;  scientific  develop- 
ment those  between  educated  and  uneducated.  All  these 
differences  together  form  the  social  problem.  Wlio  is  to  solve 
it  ?  Only  someone  who  can  make  mankind  satisfied,  obedient 
and  moral— and  that  is  God  and  His  religion.  Therefore  a 
struggle  against  God  and  His  religion  is  a  struggle  against 
culture  and  for  barbarity." 

Gustav  Theodor  Fechner,  who  died  in  1887,  and  whose 

theory  is  agreed  with  by  many  of  the  leading  thinkers  of  the 

day,  argued  that  the  future  of  religion  is  a 

Fechner  s       conjunction     between     belief     and    science. 

People,  he  contended,  have  become  tired  of 

the  Church's  dogmatism,  which  appeals  neither  to  the  head 

nor  the  heart,  but  still  they  seek  for  something  more  than 

gross  materialism,  while  atheism  appears  to  them  like  an 

abyss.     The  liberal  sections  of  the  Churches  have  begun  to 

see  the  logic  and  the  necessity  of  combining  knowledge  with 

belief,  and  perhaps  the  day  is  not  far  distant  when  the  religious 

feelings  of  the  people  will  again  be  stirred  by  preaching  that 


Philosophy  and  Culture  245 

shows  itself  in  accord  with  the  times.  Fechner  in  his  works 
always  endeavoured  to  harmonize  present-day  knowledge 
with  the  Biblical  writings.  His  world  was  far  from  being 
a  godless  one,  all  was  full  of  life  and  sunshine  and  happiness, 
with  belief  in  the  goal  of  mankind. 

Dr.  Alfred  Heussner,  of  Gottingen,  says:  "  Philosophy  is 
learning  ;  religion  is  life,"  and  in  his  view  Christianity  has  a 
great  future  to  add  to  its  great  past. 

^^FutS^!^'"*  Professor  Doring,  of  Berlin,  regards  religion 
as  "  a  parallel  appearance  to  culture,  each 
of  them  reflecting  what  mankind  desires  to  have  and  to 
be." 

Carl  Jentsch,  who  was  for  nineteen  years  a  Catholic  priest, 
but  then  left  the  Roman  Church,  believes  it  quite  possible  for 
a  scientist  to  be  at  the  same  time  a  Christian,  for,  he  says, 
"  philosophy  has  long  ago  destroyed  the  foundations  of 
materiahsm." 

Other  modem  philosophers,  whose  works  have  from  time 
to  time  attracted  attention,  take  up  varying  points  of  view. 

Wilhelm  Bolsche  is  very  optimistic  regarding  man's  future 
on  earth.     He  regards  the  human  being  as  possessing  the 

A  Oft  power  to  develop  himself  in  such  a  way  as 
to  overcome  all  the  difficulties  of  existence 
which  pessimists  predict  for  the  future. 

Professor  Weismann,  of  Freiburg  University,  is  an  out-and- 
out  Darwinian,  who  has  published  a  number  of  very  convincing 
books  on  the  subject  of  evolution. 

Alois  Riehl  says  :    "  The  deepest  effect  of  philosophy  is  to 

transform     knowledge    into    wisdom.     Endeavour,    through 

setting  forth  the  relations  of  the  things  of  Hfe 

^^T°iks^^'^  to  philosophy,  to  raise  or  probe  the  general 
surface  of  human  culture.  Philosophy  is  the 
groundwork  of  all  sciences,  and  as  such  is  imperishable  and 
capable  of  development.  The  development  affects  equally 
scientific  and  ethical  views  and  through  the  conjunction  of 
both  philosophy  will  be  given  higher  tasks," 


246  Germany  of  the  Germans 

Professor  Thode,  of    Heidelberg  University,  opposes  the 
realistic  and  materialistic  idea  of  looking  at  life  and  also  the 
prominence  given  to  outward  appearances  at 
Lost^Ideali'sm     *^^  expense  of  the  development  of  intellect. 
He  considers  that  Germans  have  lost  much 
of  their  idealism  under  the  influence  of  foreigners,  the  develop- 
ment of  ideas   of  culture  has  received  a  check,   and  the 
nation  has  to  some  extent  become  unfaithful  to  its  task  of 
culture. 

Professor  Ludwig  Gurlitt  is  of  opinion  that  German  culture 
is  in  great  measure  hindered  by  the  State,  which,  aided  by 
its  partner,   the   Church,   puts   a   brake   on 
InteHecufaUty.    intellectuality.     He      is      very      pessimistic, 
declaring   that   followers   of    Kant,    Goethe, 
Schiller,  Hebbel,  and  Nietzsche  find  little  State  recognition 
and  that  the  desire  for  culture  is  stamped  out  in  the  schools. 
He  also  says  the  Church  strives  against  modernism  and  there- 
fore against  progress,  and  that  thousands  are  ready  to  change 
the  existing  insupportable  conditions. 

Professor  Kurd  Lasswitz  finds  religious  life  necessary,  but 
it  must  not  be  dogmatic  or  take  the  form  of  a  church,  resting 
rather  upon  the  inner  working  of  personal 
^N^les^lr^^^^    belief.     In  his  view  fanaticism,  enthusiasm, 
compulsion  on  the  conscience  with  hierarchy 
are  the  worst  enemies  of  real  culture,  which  results  from  self- 
responsibility,   discipline  of  thought,   will  and  feeling — the 
government  of  nature  by  intelligence. 

Richard  Dehmel  sees  Germany's  chief  ideal  in  the  creation 
of  a  materialistic  culture  of  the  first  rank,  through  the  intro- 
duction of  economical,  juristic,  hygienic  and  moral  discipline 
among  the  people  ;  but  he  regards  the  attainment  of  the 
ideal  as  difficult  owing  to  the  varied  nature  of  the  interests 
involved. 

Friedrich  Neumann  takes  much  the  same  view,  but  thinks 
a  unification  of  the  interests  must  come. 
Professor  Georg  Simmel,  of  Berlin,  finds  the  reaspn  for 


Philosophy  and  Culture  247 

pessimism  among  thinkers  in  the  ever-widening  gulf  between 

the   culture  of  things  and  the  culture  of   mankind.      The 

_  ,         perfection    of   institutions    and   of   the  con- 

Reason  for       ^      .  r  vx      u  J  A    •       1 

Pessimism.      vemences  of  hfe,  he    says,  does   not   imply 

culture.     That  can  only  be  attained  by  the 

cultivation  of  self. 

The   older   German   philosophers,   Leibniz,    Kant,    Hegel, 

Herbart,   Fichte,   Schelling,   Schopenhauer    and    Hartmann, 

still   have   a   more   or  less  extended  direct 

pSoso  h  rs      ^oliowing  among  those  who  do  not  see  their 

way  clear  to  keep  up  with  the  more  modem 

schools  of  thought. 

What  will  be  the  outcome  of  the  struggle  between  the 

different  tendencies  is  difficult  to  foresee,  as  supremacy  seems 

to  lie  first  with  one  and  then  with  another. 


^  OF 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

MUNICIPAL  ACTIVITIES 

Since  the  war  of  1870  the  face  of  Germany  has  completely 

changed.     In  1871  there  were  only  eight  cities  of  over  100,000 

inhabitants,  containing  in  all  only  2,000,000 

^"^^  atief  *^^  °^*  ^^  *^^  ^^^^^  population  of  41,000,000. 
At  the  last  census,  in  1905,  there  were  no 
fewer  than  forty-one  cities  with  a  population  of  over  100,000, 
and  these  accounted  for  over  11,500,000  of  the  60,500,000 
inhabitants  of  the  Empire.  Since  1905  the  number  of  city 
dwellers  has  largely  increased. 

The  immense  spread  of  industry  and  commerce  accounts, 
naturally,  for  the  greater  part  of  this  change.  The  eight 
ports  of  Hamburg,  Stettin,  Konigsberg,  Bremen,  Altona, 
Kiel,  Danzig  and  Liibeck,  which  in  1885  had  a  total  population 
of  only  1,167,400,  had  increased  in  1905  to  no  fewer  than 
2,045,156. 

The  great  cities  which  owe  their  development  purely  to 

industry  are  Chemnitz,  Plauen,  Nuremberg,  Essen,  Bochum, 

Gelsenkirchen,  Elberfeld,  Barmen,  Dortmund, 

IndlTsU^         Duisburg,    Diisseldorf,    Krefeld   and   Aix-la- 

Chapelle.     Frankfort-on-Main  and  Halle  are 

commercial   cities,    while    Leipzig   has   trade    and   industry 

combined,  and  is  also  the  seat  of  the  Imperial  Supreme  Court, 

as  well  as  of  many  art  and  science  institutions.     Munich, 

Dresden,   Karlsruhe,   Strassburg  and  Posen  have  extended 

mostly  because  they  are  seats  of  government.     Stuttgart  is 

the  centre  of  a  thickly  populated  agricultural  district,  as  is 

also  Breslau. 

The  distribution  of  wealth  among  the  great  cities  of  Prussia 

248 


./ 


Municipal  Activities  249 

is  very  unequal,  if  the  number  of  millionaires  on  the  tax- 
payers' lists  is  to  be  accepted  as  a  guide.     According  to  the 

latest  returns  there  were  for  every  1,000  tax- 
°'^  We^lh!"  °^   payers  in  Charlottenburg— an  annex  to  Berlin 

— ^32-9  millionaires  (that  is  to  say,  mark  million- 
aires, or  possessors  of  over  ;f 50,000).  In  Frankfort-on-Main 
there  were  284  per  1,000  ;  in  Wiesbaden,  24*8  ;  in  Diisseldorf, 
22;  in  Berlin,  21-9;  in  Aix-la-Chapelle,  202;  in  Elberfeld, 
18*1  ;  in  Cologne,  161  ;  in  Barmen,  15'2 ;  in  Essen,  14'2 ; 
in  Dortmund,  10'9 ;  in  Magdeburg,  10'5  ;  in  Breslau,  96  ; 
in  Hanover,  9*6 ;  in  Halle,  92 ;  in  Cassel,  85  ;  in  Krefeld, 
8*5  ;  in  Altona,  77  ;  in  Duisburg,  7-6  ;  in  Bochum,  6*8  ;  in 
Stettin,  6"4  ;  in  G^lsenkirchen,  64  ;  in  Erfurt,  6-2  ;  in  Posen, 
5*8 ;  in  Kiel,  5*6 ;  in  Schoneberg,  4*7 ;  in  Danzig,  4*7 ;  in 
Rixdorf,  3'4,  and  in  Konigsberg,  3-3. 

City  government  is  in  Germany,  except  for  the  police — 
which  in  large  towns  is  a  State  force  controlled  by  the  Minis- 
terial authorities  and  entirely  independent  of  municipal  control 
— in  the  hands  of  the  ratepayers,  who  elect  the  municipal 
councils  by  public  ballot. 

The  mayors  of  cities  are  chosen  for  a  nimiber  of  years  (in 
Prussian  cities  the  period  is  twelve  years)  by  the  town  council ; 
but  the  approval  of  the  State  Government  must  be  obtained 
for  their  appointment,  except  in  Baden,  where  the  towns  are 
not  controlled  in  this  way. 

German  municipalities  bear  a  very  heavy  burden  of 
debt,   the   total   at   the   end   of   1907,  the  latest   available, 

amounting   to    £264,800,000,    of    which     no 
^"oebt/^      less    than    £210,000,000    was     borrowed    in 

the  ten  years  between  1897-1907.  These 
figures  refer  only  to  districts  with  over  10,000  inhabitants. 
The  cities,  indeed,  issue  more  and  more  loans  every 
year.  The  amount  of  debt  and  the  interest  paid  thereon 
per  head  of  population  in  some  of  the  leading  towns 
make  interesting  reading.  The  following  short  table  shows 
the  figures : 


250 


Germany  of  the  Germans 


Debt  per 

Head 

Annual  Interest  per 
Head  of  Population 

Frankfort-on-Main 

£  s. 
32  15 

d. 
0 

s. 
16 

d. 
2 

Charlottenburg     . 
Wiesbaden      .      . 

26  14 
25  11 

0 
0 

19 
17 

8 

7 

Diisseldorf       .      . 

22  12 

0 

16 

H 

Dortmund       .      . 

21   17 

0 

15 

3 

Krefeld      .      .      . 

20  16 

0 

13 

11 

Cologne      .      .      . 
Schoneberg     .      . 
Dresden     .      .      . 

17  2 
16  19 
14  12 

0 
0 
0 

12 
12 
10 

7 
0 
2i 

Hanover    .      .      . 

14    9 

0 

9 

10 

Posen  .... 

14     3 

0 

9 

11 

Greater  Berlin 

13     0 

0 

8 

6 

Leipzig       .      .      . 
Rixdorf      .      .      . 

12  12 
12  12 

0 
0 

8 
6 

10 

A  considerable  amount  of  this  money  is  represented  by 

municipal  buildings  and  undertakings.     These  include  town 

halls,  school-houses,  hospitals,  asylums,   gas, 

^^fs'' U^d"^^    water  and  electric  works,  baths,  market-halls, 

slaughter-houses,    museums     and     libraries, 

pawnshops,  etc. 

Statistics  have  been  compiled  referring  to  1,825  munici- 
palities, of  which  800  undertake  one,  556  two,  311  three.  111 
four,  and  37  five  and  more  branches  of  trading. 

In  continually  increasing  proportion  the  cities  are  under- 
taking on  their  own  account  works  of  public  utihty,  on  the 
principle   that  enterprises  which   are   indis- 
UtiHty°^       pensable  to  the  whole  community  should  not 
be  in  the  hands  of  private  owners,  who  are 
striving  only  for  their  own  benefit. 

The  latest  extension  of  this  kind  of  enterprise  has  been 
started  by  the  rural  communities,  especially  in  industrial 
districts,  where  canals  are  a  great  factor  in  transport.  In 
Teltow,  for  instance,  the  local  council  has  built  a  canal  at  a 
cost  of  ;f2,000,000,  and  owns  tugs  both  on  the  canal  and  the 
river  Havel,  and  also  an  electric  railway. 
Essen,    in   Westphalia,   has,   with  the   assistance  of   the 


Municipal  Activities 


251 


neighbouring  communities,  started  a  great  electric  plant  which 
supplies  a  large  circle  of  the  surrounding  country,  and  is  about 
to  take  over  a  local  railway  at  a  cost  of  £700,000. 

Many  other  districts  are  following  this  example. 

In  101  towns  from  which  returns  are  to  hand  the  total 

amount  of  municipal  rates  and  taxes  raised  annually  rose 

from  ;f7,988,000  in   1895  to  ;£16,560,000  in 

^^^s^"""^     1906.     These  figures,  of  course,  refer  only  to 

big  towns.     In  1907  the  total  amount  of  the 

rates  raised  by  all  cities,  municipalities  and  rural  districts 

was  ;fl56,901,000. 

It  would  take  too  much  space  to  go  into  the  whole  question 
of  taxation  and  rating  in  Germany.  Perhaps  a  fair  idea  of 
the  general  level  of  direct  imposts,  without  including  the 
indirect  taxes  on  consumable  and  other  commodities,  may  be 
obtained  from  the  official  tables  of  taxes  and  rates  levied  in 
some  of  the  big  Prussian  towns,  most  of  which  are  industrial 
centres.  Women  and  children  are  also  included  in  the  figures 
when  they  refer  to  the  amount  per  head. 

Rhine  District 


Population 

state  Income 

Local  Rates 

Tax  per  Head 

per  Head 

s.     d. 

f    s.       d. 

Bonn        .... 

83.950 

19     6 

1   17     2i 

Diisseldorf     . 

265.050 

19     6 

1   19  lU 

Elberfeld        . 

166.090 

17     5 

2     4     4 

Essen       .      . 

244,700 

16     4i 

1   19     9J 

Cologne    .      . 

458.040 

16     0^ 

1   18  11 

Aix-la-Chapelle 

153.370 

15     4 

1   18     7| 

Duisburg 

206.850 

13     4i 

1   14     5 

Coblence 

55.980 

13     3i 

1     7     0 

Rheydt    .      . 

42.220 

12     7i 

1  14     8J 

Crefeld     .      . 

124.740 

12     5J 

1   12  lOi 

Mulheim-on-  Rhine 

52.590 

12     2 

1   12     8 

Munchen-Gladbach 

63.450 

12     Oi 

1   16     Oi 

Barmen   . 

161,680 

12     OJ 

1   18     1| 

Miilheim-on-Ruhr 

100,380 

11   10 

1     7     3 

Oberhausen 

58.400 

11     H 

1   13    8i 

Remscheid    .      . 

67.820 

10    7 

1   13     if 

Trier  .... 

48.020 

9  lOi 

1     9     9i 

Solingen  .      .      . 

49,600 

9     6 

1   10     6i 

252 


Germany  of  the  Germans 
Westphalian  Towns 


Population 

State  Income 

Local  Rates 

Tax  per  Head 

per  Head 

s.      d. 

£     «.      d. 

Dortmund     .      .      . 

192.550 

12     9| 

2      0      3J 

Bielefeld 

72.080 

12     8 

1   12  llf 

Miinster  .      . 

84.330 

11     8i 

1   10     9 

Gelsenkirchen 

158.180 

10  llj 

1     9     0^ 

Iserlohn  .      . 

30.200 

10     6i 

1   10     4^ 

Bochum  .      . 

127,220 

10     3i 

1     9     Of 

Witten     .      . 

36.420 

10  11 

1   14     8f 

Ludenscheid 

30.740 

9  10 

1     7     4i 

Hagen      .      . 

83.920 

9     3J 

1   12     OJ 

Hamm     . 

40.520 

8    8^ 

1     9  11 

Recklinghausen 

50.340 

7  lOi 

1   11     3 

Heme 

54.560 

7     1 

1     8     li 

Other  Prussian  Cities 


State  Income 

Local  Rates 

Popxilation 

Tax  per  Head 

per  Head 

£    s.      d. 

£     s.      d. 

Charlottenburg     . 

260,330 

1   14     4 

2  10     7 

Frankfort 

353,480 

1    11     Oi 

2   15     Oi 

Wiesbaden 

103.660 

1     7     2i 

2  13  10 

Schoneberg 

158.920 

1     1    11 

1   18     7 

Berlin  .      . 

2.049.620 

1     0     0^ 

1    18     2 

Cassel  .      . 

144.860 

13  lOf 

1   13  10 

Hanover 

278.010 

13  lOJ 

1     9     1 

Magdeburg 

245.290 

13     8 

1   15     4i 

Halle    .      . 

175.190 

13     2| 

1     9  10^ 

Erfurt 

103.070 

12  lOJ 

1     8     6 

Breslau 

494.820 

12     7 

1   14  10 

Kiel      .      . 

172.430 

10  lOi 

1   17     9J 

Gorlitz       . 

84.060 

10     6i 
10     5i 

1     3  11 

Altona 

171,940 

1   13    9 

Stettin 

228.530 

10     4 

1   11     2  J 

KSnigsberg 

230.870 

9     1 

1   12  10 

Posen  .      . 

146.010 

8     6J 

1   10    8 

Danzig 

159.550 

7     8i 

1     6     1 

Rixdorf     .      . 

190.040 

7     4i 

15     6 

Municipal  Activities  253 

A  slight  glance  at  the  work  of  the  municipalities  for  the 
citizens  gives  an  idea  of  the  range  of  activities  covered  by 
these  public  bodies. 
Acidities  ^^^  figures  are  so  complex  and  come  from 

so  many  different  quarters  that  the  authori- 
ties cannot  keep  up  to  date  within  some  years,  but  those  given 
are  official. 

Hospitals  and  lunatic  asylums  account  for  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  municipal  expenditure  every  year.  In  1901 
there  were  no  fewer  than  120,872  patients  admitted  into  the 
public  and  private  asylums  throughout  Germany,  of  which 
there  are  332  with  90,159  beds. 

In  the  same  year  there  were  48,750  deaf  and  dumb  and  over 
34,000  totally  blind  to  be  cared  for. 

The  pubhc  and  private  hospitals,  of  which  there  were 
2,340,  with  176,487  beds,  gave  accommodation  to  1,253,218 
Th    H      'tai       in-patients  in  the  same  year. 

Then,  besides  the  lighting  and  cleaning, 
controlling  the  markets  and  slaughter-houses,  providing  water 
and  other  necessities,  the  municipahties  supervise  the 
registration  of  births,  marriages  and  deaths,  vaccination  and 
school  attendance. 

Public  baths,  too,  are  furnished  in  some  cities.  There 
are  2,847  of  these  hygienic  institutions  in  the  Empire,  which, 
however,  means  only  one  for  every  22,000  of  the  population. 
There  are  1,092  municipahties,  each  containing  over  3,000 
inhabitants,  which  do  not  possess  any  public  bath  whatever. 
The  total  of  baths  provided  altogether  is  18,996  washing  baths, 
11,111  shower  baths  and  232  swimming  baths.  In  some 
districts  the  rivers  are  much  utihsed  as  bathing  places. 

The  opening  and  closing  of  shops  is  strictly  regulated  by 
police  order  under  the  municipalities'  instruc- 

^h^^w!/    tions.     In   fifty   towns   every  kind  of  shop, 
other  than  restaiu-ants   and   drinking-houses, 
is  compelled  to  close  at  eight  in  the  evening  except  on  Satur- 
day night,  when  an  extension  to  nine  is  permitted.  On  Simdays 


254  Germany  of  the  Germans 

all  are  allowed  to  open  till  2  p.m.  except  during  church  hours, 
which  are  reckoned  from  ten  to  twelve.  There  is  no  restric- 
tion on  places  of  public  entertainment,  such  as  theatres  and 
music-halls,  as  to  hours  either  on  Sunday  or  any  other  day. 
Restaurants  and  drinking-houses  usually  close  at  2  a.m.,  but 
may  obtain  permission  to  remain  open  all  night  the  whole 
year  round. 

In  the  entire  Empire  there  are  over  2,400  miles  of  tram  lines, 
under  the  control  of  237  companies  (in  some  cases  the  muni- 
cipahty).  Most  of  them  are  run  by  electric  trolley  system. 
There  are  39,853  drivers,  conductors  and  inspectors  and  12,937 
other  employees.  The  total  capital  laid  out  on  these  lines 
is  ;f45,231,522. 

The  State  Governments  have  for  many  years  encouraged 

the  municipalities  to  acquire  lands  in  the  vicinity  of  towns 

for   building   purposes.     The  encouragement 

^o?  bind  "      ^^^  ^^^^^^  ^^  fruitful  soil,  for  at  the  present 

moment  over  1,100  communities  in  Germany 

have  assured  incomes  from  the  rents  of  municipal  lands,  thus 

affording  considerable  rehef  of  taxation. 

The  whole  of  the  planning  of  the  cities  is  in  the  hands  of 
the  municipalities,  and  in  some  instances,  where  a  landlord 
does  not  build  on  a  vacant  site,  the  land  is  taxed  and  rated  at 
its  estimated  value  if  it  were  built  on  and  the  amount  is 
increased  as  the  value  of  the  land  augments. 

Over   300    municipahties    have   also   introduced  taxation 

on  unearned  increment  values  of  land  within  their  boundaries. 

So  many  of  the  cities  of  Germany  are  real 

Unearned       models  of  municipal  government  that  it  is 

impossible  to  take  one  as  a  specimen  and  say  : 

"  This  is  the  model  city."      Perhaps  a  short  reference  to 

several  cities,  each  celebrated  for  some  reason,  will  show  how 

widespread  are  the  interests  of  Germany. 

Berlin,  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  repeat,  is  the  biggest  city 
and  the  capital  of  the  Empire.  It  is  at  the  same  time  probably 
the   greatest    manufacturing   centre.      Not    an    artistically 


Municipal  Activities  255 

beautiful    city,  still  it  is   very  imposing  with  its  high  and 
solid-looking    buildings,   wide,   straight    and    clean    streets, 
well  lighted,  and  with  numerous  open  spaces. 
^*cSv^^^*      It   has   many   important    art    and   scientific 
institutions  of  distinctly  modem  architecture. 
Berlin  is  known,  even  among  the  Germans  themselves,  as 
a  splendid  metropolis  inhabited  by  peasantry.     The  some- 
what disdainful  appellation  was  bestowed  on 
G^^^^^^h         ^^^  capital  of   the  Empire  in    consequence 
of    its    marvellously    rapid    growth,    which 
has    been    mainly   fostered   by   migration    from    the    land. 
When  it  is  remembered  that  in  1816  Berlin  had  only  198,000 
inhabitants,  in  1855  only  461,000,  at  the  foundation  of  the 
Empire  in  1870  only  774,500,  and  that  at  the  last  census, 
in  1905,  it  possessed  2,040,000,  it  will  be  acknowledged  that 
there  is  some   justification.    These   figures  show  that  the 
population  of  the  city  has  increased  in  considerably  less  than 
a  century  by  ten  times  its  number.     In  the  same  period  the 
population  of  the  Empire  increased  only  from  24,833,000  to 
60,000,000— less  than  three  times. 

The  value  of  land  in  Berlin  increased  from  £A  18s.  the  square 
meter  (a  Httle  over  a  yard)  in  1868  to  £14  8s.  the  square  meter 
in  1906. 

The  Berliner  enjoys  every  facility  for  proceeding  from  one 
place  to  another  :  his  street  car  service  is  cheap  and  excellent, 
horse  and  motor  cabs  are  abundant  and  not 
^rans  ^ort'^     expensive ;     the    underground    electric    rail- 
way   is    quick,    clean    and    cheap ;     motor- 
omnibuses  have  made  their  appearance  and  are  rapidly  driving 
the  old  uncomfortable  horse-omnibuses  out  of  business. 
Hamburg,  Bremen  and  Liibeck,  the  three  city  republics 
which  form  an  important  part  of  the  Empire, 
Free  Cities.      ^^  consequence  of  their  connection  with  the 
sea  and  the  passage  of  an  immense  portion 
of  Germany's  foreign    trade    through    their   hands,   are   aU 
most  interesting  cities.     Not  only  are  they  great  conmiercial 


256  Germany  of  the  Germans 

centres,  but  they  form  most  picturesque  memorials  of 
historical  times,  with  their  mediaeval  architecture  and  relics 
of  the  old  Hanseatic  League.  All  these  cities  have  suffered 
considerably  from  an  artistic  point  of  view  owing  to  their 
immense  prosperity.  Many  modern  buildings  are  now  taking 
the  place  of  the  quaint  houses  of  the  old  towns. 

Frankfort-on-Main  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  German  cities, 

dating  from  the  time  of  the  Romans,  when  it  was  the  central 

point  of  trading  between  north  and  south, 

^^^^^om&n    g^g^  ^^^  ^^g^      j^Q^  ^^^Yi  of  the  ancient  city 

can  be  traced  to-day,  but  excavations  have 
shown  that  a  Roman  city  existed  on  the  site  of  what  is  now 
called  the  old  town,  which  is  mediaeval.  Many  of  the  houses 
of  this  period  still  stand  in  excellent  condition,  including  the 
old  Town  Hall,  which,  however,  has  undergone  frequent 
restoration.  Frankfort  was  a  republic  until  1866,  when  it 
became  part  of  Prussia. 

Konigsberg,  on  the  Baltic,  is  noted  as  being  the  birthplace 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia,  for  it  was  here  in  1701  that  the 

Prince    Elector   Friedrich   III  was    crowned 
^*PrSisS  °^     ^^"^  °^  Prussia.     The  city  was  built  by  the 

Knights  of  Malta. 
Posen  is  of  interest  on  account  of  the  obstinate  resistance 
of  its  inhabitants  to  the  attempts  made  by  Prussia  to  Ger- 
manise them.  Formerly  a  city  of  the  Kingdom  of  Poland, 
it  came  into  Prussian  possession  finally  in  1815,  but  the  spirit 
of  the  people  is  still  Polish. 

Miinden,  a  little  town  on  the  Fulda  and  Werra,  has  one 
notable  fact  to  remember,  although  it  did  not  make  the  town 

famous  in  Germany.     It  was  from  here  the 
S^diers  for      Hanoverian  soldiers  set  sail  to  take  part  in 

many  of  England's  wars,  including  the  war 
in  America.  Another  important  event  in  the  town's  history 
was  the  destruction  by  its  jealous  sailor-men  of  the  primitive 
steamer  constructed  by  Papin  early  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
said  by  Germans  to  have  been  the  first  steamboat. 


Municipal  Activities  257 

Dresden,  the  "  German  Florence,"  prides  itself  on  being  the 

home  of  all  the  arts,  and  it  has  a  right  to  the  title,  for  its 

collections  of  all  kinds  are  one  of  the  wonders 

FlSSJ^r*'        °^  Europe.     The  town,  which  is  beautifully 

situated,  is  much  frequented  by  foreigners. 

There  are,  in  fact,  permanent  English,  American,  Russian  and 

Polish  colonies  of  considerable  importance. 

Sonneberg  has  a  peculiar  reno\\Ti.    It  is  the  "  city  of  dolls." 
There  are  no  factories,  for  the  dolls,  which  range  from  the 
fully  dressed  lady  doll  in  silks  to  the  rag  or 
f  Dll  wooden  penny  doll,  are  made  by  hand  by  the 

peasants  and  other  inhabitants  of  the  sur- 
rounding villages.  Over  ;f  1,000,000  worth  of  dolls  are  sold 
here  every  year  for  export  to  all  parts  of  the  earth. 

The  picturesque  side  of  German  town  life  is  perhaps  to  be 

seen  at   its  best  in  Rothenburg-ob-der-Tauber,  in  Bavaria, 

which  stands  to-day  in  practically  the  same 

There  are  no  railways  or  tramways  or  electric 
lights  to  disturb  the  harmony  of  the  old  Gothic  houses,  which 
are  set  in  the  framework  of  the  defensive  walls  with  their 
pointed  and  round  towers  built  in  the  Middle  Ages.  All 
these,  including  the  braiss  cannon  poking  their  muzzles 
through  the  embrasures  and  the  galleries  where  the 
men-at-arms  did  sentry  duty,  remain  just  as  they  were. 

Weimar,  owing  to  the  fact  that  both  Goethe  and  Schiller 

lived  there,  has  become  a  sort  of  shrine  for  Hterary  men — 

a  classic  city.     It  always  has  been  an  artistic 

^Sh**^^^      centre.     Many  persons  belonging  to  both  these 

branches  of  intellectual  activity,  as  well  as 

musicians,  who  are  attracted  by  the  fact  that  Franz  Lizst 

stayed   there   for    many   summers,    make   the   town    their 

home. 

Heidelberg,  among  students,  is  what  Mecca  is  to  Moham- 
medans.    There  student  life  is  to  be  seen  in  all  its  gay  irre- 
sponsibility.    The  vari-coloured  caps  of  the  duelling  corps 
17— (2391) 


258  Germany  of  the  Germans 

and   other   societies    are    met  with    everywhere.      All   the 

inhabitants  are  more  or  less  in  touch  with  the  university — the 

tradesmen  who  supply  the  students'  needs,  the 

^^^M^c&^^'^    beerhouse  hosts  who  welcome  the  influx  of  the 

nightly  crowds  of  rollicking  scholars,  the  many 

persons  employed  at  the  lecture-rooms,  the  householders  who 

let  their  rooms  (for  students  do  not  sleep  in  college),  and  the 

proprietors  of  places  of  amusement,  which  cater  mostly  for 

the  youth  of  the  university.     All  this  merry  life  makes  the 

town    an    interesting   one,    not    to   speak   of    its   historical 

associations  and  its  beautiful  situation. 

Nuremberg  is  known  to  all  the  world  as  the  "  city  of  toys." 
Besides  manufacturing  enormous  quantities  within  its  own 
walls,   it   collects  thousands  of  tons  which 
To^^  have  been  made  in  their  homes  by  the  sur- 

rounding villagers  and  sends  them  all  over 
the  world.  Nuremberg  is  also  noted  for  its  wonderful  hand- 
made iron  ornamental  work  and  its  hardware.  It  is  one  of 
the  few  cities  of  Germany  that  has  retained  its  old-world 
character  within  the  walls  almost  in  its  entirety.  The  town 
has  grown  greatly  of  recent  years,  but  the  new  portion  is 
entirely  outside  the  fortifications,  which  date  from  the  Middle 
Ages. 

Ulm,  in  Wiirttemberg,  the  principal  garrison  of  that  State, 

is  known  more  for  its  minster,  or  cathedral,  than  anything 

else.     It  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  Danube, 

C  tlr*dral^      where  it  separates  Bavaria  and  Wiirttemberg. 

To  look  at  it  from  a  distance,  one  would  never 

imagine  it  a  strong  fortress.     As  a  matter  of  fact,  quite  a 

quarter  of  the  population  consists  of  soldiers.     The  town  is 

very  old.     At  every  turn  one  finds  a  picturesque  house.    The 

town  hall,  500  years  old,  with  its  timepiece  dating  from  1500  ; 

the  cathedral,  which  took  centuries  to  complete  ;    "  Little 

Venice,"  the  "  butchers'  town,"  an  old  city  bulwark,  the 

Eagle  bastion,  the  "  Goose  town,"  its  narrow  streets  and 

alleys  and  its  fountains  :   all  are  reminders  of  olden  times. 


liidBi.3^ 


SHRINE   OF   ST.    SEBALDUS,    NUREMBERG 


//  ■%>'■ 


\^w^ 


OP   T 


OF 


_^-'' 


Municipal  Activities  259 

All  these  towns  are  increasing  in  size  and  importance  and 
in  some  places  it  has  been  found  difficult  to  harmonize  the 
newer  districts  with  the  older,  but  every  effort  is  made  to 
do  so. 

One  interesting  problem  in  connection  with  town  life  is 

its  influence  on  the  human  physique.     The  military  surgeons 

find  that  townsmen  are  not  fitted  for  hard 

^"crtv  T"f  °^  physical  exercise  in  nearly  the  same  degree 
as  countrymen.  At  the  same  time,  the  towns- 
man is  found  to  be  intellectually  much  the  sharper  of  the  two. 
Whether  the  physical  deterioration  of  the  townsman  will 
continue  or  not  is  an  interesting  question  for  the  future. 
Great  cities  have  not  yet  been  long  enough  in  existence 
for  conclusions  to  be  drawn  as  to  their  final  effect  upon 
mankind.  In  the  meantime,  every  effort  in  the  way  of 
hygienic  improvement  is  being  made  by  the  authorities  to 
assist  the  citizens  in  their  struggle  against  the  evils  of 
overcrowding  and  the  contamination  of  the  air  by  the 
factories. 

Owing  to  the  widespread  system  of  flats,  especially  in 

Berlin,  it  is  difficult  for  single  persons  living  alone  in  the 

cities  to  find  comfortably  furnished  rooms. 

^I)"ffi^°^r"^  Many  persons  in  the  poorer  quarters  let  what 
are  called  "  sleeping  places,"  where  these 
lonely  workers  for  a  small  rent  stay  the  night.  In  many  cases 
half  a  dozen  sleep  in  one  room,  whence  they  have  to  turn 
out  in  the  morning  without  breakfast.  An  attempt  is  being 
made  to  change  this  condition  of  things  by  the  erection  of 
bachelors'  homes.  Charlottenburg  has  led  the  way  by  erecting 
one  with  340  beds,  and  this  has  been  a  great  success,  both 
morally  and  financially.  It  is  to  be  followed  by  others,  as 
it  is  said  that  in  Berlin  alone  there  are  150,000  persons,  young 
men  and  women,  mostly  poor  respectable  workers,  who  are 
condemned  to  exist  in  "  sleeping  places." 

The  provision  of  healthy  lodgings  for  workmen  has  been 
taken  in  hand  by  the  Prussian  Government  in  connection 


260  Germany  of  the  Germans 

with  its  State  employees.  The  railway  administration  has 
spent    no    less    than    £3,450,000    on    building   workmen's 

dwellings ;  the  forestry  department,  £39,325 ; 
^wfrkSen°^     and  the  State  mining  department,  £680,000  ; 

and  a  further  sum  of  £800,000  has  been 
voted  for  the  purpose. 


I 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

LIFE   AND   SOME   CUSTOMS 

Much  has  been  written  in  reference  to  the  alleged  epidemic 
of  prodigality  which  has  affected  the  Germans  in  recent  years. 
It  does  not  require  a  very  extended  investiga- 
ProdkSfty       ^^^^  ^°  prove  that  the  recklessness  of  expendi- 
ture is  limited  to  the  exotic  quarters  of  one 
or  two  of  the  bigger  cities.     The  true  German,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  is  just  as  "  careful  "  as  ever  he  was  in  his  living  and,  as 
is  proved  by  the  enormous  sums  deposited  in  the  savings 
banks,  in  providing  for  "  a  rainy  day."     If  only  the  people 
of  some  of  the  other  nations  could  be  inoculated  with  the 
thrift  microbe  so  prevalent  in  Germany,  it  would  be  a  good 
thing  for  them  ! 

"  Society"  has  not  yet  succeeded  in  elbowing  the  "  family  " 

out  of  the  way  in  Germany,  although  in  some  of  the  great 

"S    •  fv  "       cities  the   "  family  "  has  a  hard  struggle  to 

fight  against  its  influences. 
In  speaking  of  the  "  nation "  in  general  terms,  the 
rich,  who  form  such  a  small  proportion  of  the  population, 
should  really  call  for  small  attention.  Their  doings  in 
"  society  "  are  practically  the  same  as  those  of  the  same 
class  in  any  other  country  and  do  not  affect  the  life  of  the 
great  majority  of  the  people. 

The  people  who  count  are  the  hard-thinking  and  hard- 
working professional,  commercial  and  working  classes. 

In  Germany  the  middle-class  families  are  notorious  for 

their  economical  ways,  which  permit  nothing  to  be  wasted. 

This  is  an  absolute  necessity,   because  the 

Econom^^     professional  and  business  men  who  form  this 

grade  of  society  are  not  in  receipt  of  anything 

like  the  incomes  the  same  class  of  men  would  receive  in  some 

other  countries ;  yet  at  the  same  time  they  have  to  maintain 

261 


262  Germany  of  the  Germans 

an  equally  prosperous  outward  appearance  while  paying  much 
higher  prices  for  provisions  of  all  kinds  as  well  as  clothing. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  theirs  is  purely  a  home  hfe,  except 
perhaps  for  the  husband's  weekly  evening  set  apart  for  a 

game  of  "  skat,"  the  national  card  game,  or 
^*^^I/f  ninepins  at  a  neighbouring  cafe,   where,   in 

the  company  of  old  fellow-students,  Army 
comrades  or  business  companions,  he  will  drink  several  glasses 
of  excellent  beer.  Perhaps  on  another  evening  he  will  go  to 
a  theatre  or  a  concert,  or  in  the  summer  with  his  family  to 
one  of  the  gigantic  beer-gardens,  where  they  can  listen  to 
admirable  music  by  a  military  or  other  band.  The  younger 
folks  of  this  class  devote  themselves  to  tennis  in  the  summer 
and  to  skating  and  dancing  in  the  winter. 

As  to  the  working  classes,  it  is  sometimes  a  matter  for  wonder 
how  they  manage  !     Perhaps  it  is   because   the  workmen 

themselves  are  unselfish  and  very  considerate 
"^^^alTse^s"^    to  their  families.     It  is  the  usual  thing  for 

the  workman  to  take  every  penny  of  his 
wages  home  and  hand  all  over  to  his  wife.  If  then,  after 
reckoning  all  the  family's  liabilities,  anything  is  left  over  it  is 
put  aside,  and  only  on  rare  occasions  are  the  savings  drawn 
upon  for  amusements  or  for  the  purpose  of  taking  a  holiday. 
The  Saturday  half-holiday  is  not  known  in  Germany.  A 
long  walk  with  the  family  on  Sunday  in  the  woods,  with  a 
modest  repast  carried  from  home  accompanied  by  a  glass  of 
mild  beer,  is  all  the  workman  demands  as  recreation,  occasion- 
ally varied  by  attendance  at  a  meeting  of  his  trade  union, 
which  is  always  of  a  political  nature,  or  by  a  game  of  cards  with 
his  fellow- workmen,  but  without  any  money  stake.  Betting 
on  horse-races  is  virtually  unknown  among  the  working 
classes.  They  also  take  very  little  part  in  the  sports  and  games 
which  have  lately  spread  so  widely  among  the  middle  classes. 
The  married  women  in  many  cases  also  go  out  to  work, 
sometimes  in  factories,  sometimes  in  private  houses.  This 
does  not,  however,  prevent  them  attending  to  their  household 


Life  and  Some  Customs  263 

work,  although  no  doubt  it  suffers.  They  rise  very  early  and 
are  often  on  the  way  to  the  open  markets  to  make  their 
purchases  as  early  as  five  o'clock  in  the  morning. 

A  glance  at  some  of  the  festivities  of  a  national  character — 
that  is  to  say,  which  are  general  all  over  the  country — shows 
that   the   German  has  his  holidays  spread 
F«S.      ^q"^"y  throughout  the  year. 

Christmas  is  the  greatest  festivity  of  the 
year,  and  is  celebrated  with  extraordinary  fervour,  more  so 
perhaps  than  in  any  other  country — not  from  a  religious  point 
of  view,  but  as  a  family  festival.  For  weeks  beforehand 
preparations  for  the  great  day  are  going  on,  parents  endea- 
vouring to  find  out  what  their  children  are  desirous  of  receiving 
as  gifts,  children  thinking  what  they  shall  present  to  their 
parents,  husbands  and  wives  carrying  out  Httle  deceptions 
in  order  to  find  out  what  will  give  pleasure  to  the  other,  and 
finally,  when  the  purchases  have  all  been  made  in  the  most 
utter  secrecy,  everybody  in  the  house  searching  for  a  hiding- 
place  in  which  to  keep  the  unexpected  offering  until  the 
glorious  moment  for  handing  it  over  to  the  joyful  recipient 
shall  arrive. 

Then  the  Christmas  tree  !     What  a  wonderful  hold  the 
custom  has  on  the  people  !     There  is  probably  not  a  home 
in  Germany  that  has  not  a  Christmas  tree  in 
^^  xl^e^*""^*   ^*  °^  Christmas  Eve  !     Even  people  hving 
alone  have  one.     In  the  evening  all  are  illu- 
minated and  the  members  of  the  family  gather  round  while 
Father  Christmas    (in   Northern   Germany)    distributes   the 
presents.     Everyone  obtains  a  present  of  some  kind  and  a 
word  or  two  of  praise  or  blame  for  his  or  her  conduct  during 
the  past  year  from  Father  Christmas.     In  Southern  Germany 
Father  Christmas  is  less  known.     The  presents  are  distributed 
amid  the  recitation  of  verses  dedicated  to  the  parents  by  the 
children,  while  a  Christ-Child  in  a  cradle  is  illuminated  on 
Christmas  morning.     In  every  part  of  the  country,  too,  it  is 
the  custom  to  sing  Christmas  carols,  many  of  which  originated 


264  Germany  of  the  Germans 

in  Germany,  but  are  now  sung  all  over  the  world  in  different 
languages. 

New  Year's  Eve  is  a  night  of  great  rejoicing.     The  first  day 

of  the  year  is  a  national  holiday.     Watch-night  services  are 

virtually  unknown.     In  their  place  the  people 

\v?^'^      gather  in  joyous  companies  either  in  private 

houses  or  in  hotels  and  restaurants,  and  in 

riotous  merriment  await  the  coming  of  midnight. 

In  the  private  gatherings  all  sorts  of  games  are  played,  and 
every  imaginable  kind  of  oracle  is  consulted  in  reference  to 
the  possibilities  of  marriage  of  the  youths  and  girls.  This 
period  of  the  year  is  the  recognised  time  for  the  announcement 
of  engagements  of  marriage,  which  appear  in  thousands  in 
the  newspapers,  principally  on  New  Year's  Day,  but  also 
throughout  the  week  following. 

Not  only  young  people  consult  the  oracle  at  this  time,  but 

also  elderly  people,  who  have  dozens  of  **  infaUible  "  methods 

of  discovering  whether  they  are  going  to  live 

finding  out  the  exact  number  of  years  they 
have  to  live. 

In  restaurants  and  hotels  the  guests  gather  early  in  the 
evening  and  pass  the  time  until  midnight  in  joyous  feasting, 
during  which  many  practical  jokes  are  played  and  battles 
royal  with  confetti,  bonbons,  etc.,  are  fought. 

AU  this  gives  occasion  for  merriment  of  the  most  boisterous 
kind  until  near  twelve  o'clock,  when  all  await  the  stroke  of 
the  hour  in  order  to  shout  '*  Happy  New  Year  "  and  kiss  each 
other  heartily.  Then,  in  some  parts,  the  last  year's  calendars 
are  collected  in  the  streets  and  made  into  a  great  bonfire. 

All   through   the   winter  months   dancing   proceeds   at   a 

terrible  pace  in  every  part  of  Germany.     Participation  in  as 

many  balls  as  possible  is  regarded  by  many 

Winter         German  parents  as  the  first  step  on  the  way 

to  the  altar  for  their  daughters,  for  it  is  at  balls 

that   most  of  the   young  persons  become  acquainted.     In 


Life  and  Some  Customs  265 

Northern  Germany  the  dancing  continues  even  during  Lent, 
when  it  is  forbidden  by  the  Church  in  Southern  Germany, 
which  is  Catholic.  In  the  city  of  Berlin  alone  there  are  1,448 
societies,  or  clubs,  which  devote  their  energies  to  the 
encouragement  of  dancing  and,  as  each  of  them  gives  a  number 
of  public  balls  every  winter,  the  opportunities  for  dancing 
are  ample. 

Prussia,  with  the  exception  of  the  towns  on  the  banks  of 
the  Rhine,  takes  very  little  part  in  the  great  carnivals  which 

are  the  custom  in  Continental  countries  before 
Q^^ygA         the  beginning  of  Lent,  but  in  Cologne,  Bonn, 

Coblence,  Mayence  and  Frankfort  the  car- 
nival is  a  yearly  event  in  which  most  of  the  inhabitants  take 
part.  The  younger  people  dress  in  every  kind  of  disguise 
and  go  masked  through  the  streets  battling  with  confetti 
and  serpentines  until  pavements  and  roadways  are  covered 
with  heaps  of  bright  coloured  paper.  Everybody  is  in 
good-humour.  Even  the  police  take  an  attack  by  a  group  of 
merry-makers  in  good  part ! 

In  Bavarian  cities,  more  especially  in  Munich,  the  carnival 
period  is  celebrated  more  or  less  within  doors — that  is  to  say, 

in  the  great  dancing  halls  and  ball-rooms, 
g  *° .  where    masked    balls    are    held    under    the 

patronage  of  art,  literary  and  other  societies. 
The  universally  recognised  good  fellowship  of  the  Southern 
German  is  on  these  occasions  displayed  in  its  best  form  and 
fun  and  frolic  reign  supreme. 

At  Eastertide  some  of  the  customs  handed  down  from  the 

time   of  the   heathen  gods  are    stiU   carried  out   in   many 

.  parts    of    the    country.      The    fiery   wheel, 

representing  the  sun,  is  still  rolled  down 
hill  in  Westphalia  as  a  sign  that  the  sun  has  come  again, 
while  in  other  districts  a  dummy  representing  King  Frost  is 
burned  or  drowned  to  show  that  his  rule  is  at  an  end. 
Searching  in  the  gardens  for  Easter  eggs,  too,  is  a  very  wide- 
spread custom :  the  red-coloured  eggs,  representing  fruitfulness, 


266  Germany  of  the  Germans 

are  supposed  to  have  been  laid  in  the  bushes  by  the  hare,  one 
of  the  most  productive  animals. 

At  Whitsuntide,  even  in  the  great  cities,  it  is  the  custom 
to  deck  the  interior  of  the  houses  with  young  branches  of 
birch,  as  a  sign  that  the  earth  has  again  become  fruitful. 

Harvest  festivals  and  the  anniversary  of  the  dedication  of 
the  village  church  give  occasion  for  rejoicings  among  the 
peasants,   who   always  turn  the   occurrence 
F^i^Ss.        ^^^^  ^^  opportunity  for  dancing. 

At  Martinmas,  in  some  of  the  real  country 
districts,  the  children  go  round  in  groups  from  house  to  house 
singing  songs  whose  origin  cannot  be  traced,  but  which  have 
passed  down  from  generation  to  generation  until  the  present 
day.  Apples  and  nuts  are  given  them  by  the  inhabitants,  or 
else  a  small  money  gift  with  which  to  purchase  them. 

There  are,  of  course,  other  festivals  in  various  parts  of  the 
country,  but  those  described  will  serve  to  show  that  the 
German,  as  a  rule,  is  not  difficult  to  please  in  his  amusements, 
and  that  he  is,  as  a  rule,  content  with  the  "  simple  life." 

One  of  the  German  customs  which  many  people  would  like 

to  see  suppressed  is  the  compulsory  duel  among  military  men, 

with  its  occasional  sad  consequence  of  the 

^  Custom°"^  innocent  man  suffering  while  the  real  offender 
goes  scatheless.  As  matters  stand,  two 
officers  who  have  a  difference,  whatever  it  may  be,  must 
submit  it  to  the  investigation  of  a  so-called  "  Court  of  honour," 
composed  of  their  brother  officers,  which  decides  whether  they 
are  to  fight  or  not.  Oftentimes  the  conditions  of  the  duel  are 
extremely  severe,  so  much  so  that  a  fatal  result  is  almost 
certain,  and  the  surviving  slaughterer  is  only  nominally 
punished  before  receiving  a  clean  sheet  and  being  permitted 
to  return  to  duty.  Honour  that  can  thus  be  satisfied  must  be 
a  very  peculiar  sentiment,  in  the  opinion  of  many ;  but, 
notwithstanding  the  strong  desire  expressed  in  many  quarters 
for  the  abolition  of  the  duel,  the  custom  survives  and  will  do 
so  until  a  law  is  passed  to  prevent  its  continuance,  or  the 


Life  and  Some  Customs  267 

Emperor,  as  head  of  the  Army,  forbids  it  entirely.  One  of  the 
worst  features  of  the  barbarous  custom  is  that  reserve  officers 
and  also  those  who  have  retired  from  the  service  with  the 
honourable  distinction  of  being  permitted  to  wear  the  uniform 
are  compelled  to  submit  to  it. 

Although  this  kind  of  duel  is  tolerated  and,  in  some  quarters, 
is  even  considered  essential  to  the  "  standing  "  of  the  officer, 

yet  until  very  recently  it  was  impossible  to 
Br^af         obtain  the  permission  of  the  authorities  for 

an  ordinary  exhibition  boxing  bout — not  a 
match — on  account  of  its  **  brutality." 

A  thing  that  strikes  the  foreigner  in  Germany  is  the  number 
of  people  who  travel  on  the  railways  in  the  third  and  fourth 

classes,  while  the  first-class  carriages  remain 
I^wav         almost  entirely  empty   and  the  second-class 

only  a  Httle  less  so.  One  of  the  reasons  is,  of 
course,  the  prevalent  thrifty  spirit ;  another  is  the  objection 
to  the  payment  of  the  railway  ticket  tax,  which  amounts  in 
the  first-class  to  16  per  cent,  on  the  price  of  the  ticket,  in  the 
second  to  8  per  cent.,  and  in  the  third  to  4  per  cent.,  while 
the  fourth-class  is  free  of  tax.  The  fares  on  the  State 
railways  are  very  moderate  and  the  carriages  of  all  classes 
are  extremely  good.  In  the  fourth-class,  however,  there  are 
very  few  seats,  the  compartments  forming  in  some  cases 
half  of  a  carriage  with  seats  only  round  the  sides,  so  that  most 
of  the  passengers  must  stand.  The  official  returns  of  the 
State  railways  show  that  not  more  than  3  per  cent,  of  the 
passengers  ride  first-class.  Of  these  the  majority  may 
certainly  be  reckoned  as  foreigners.  Only  about  10  per  cent, 
ride  second-class  and  the  remainder  third  and  fourth. 

It  would  take  a  volume  to  describe  even  a  small  proportion  of 
the  customs,  amusements  and  habits  of  this  people,  who  com- 
bine so  many  elements,  owing  to  the  multitude  of  small  States  ; 
but  these  will  be  sufficient  to  show  that,  instead  of  being 
prodigal,  as  they  have  lately  been  portrayed,  the  Germans  as  a 
nation  are  as  thrifty  and  simple-minded  as  ever  they  were. 


INDEX 


Accident  Insurance,  134 

Stations.   120 

Accidents,     Compensation     for, 

134 
Actors  and  Actresses,  224 
Actors'  Salaries,  226 
Actors,  their  numbers,  225 
Agricultural  Element,   159 
Alexander,  Richard,  actor,  225 
Alsace-Lorraine,  36 
Ambrosius,     Johanna,     author, 

198 
Amusements,   182 
Animal  Breeding,  159 
Antipathy  to  Prussia,  30 
Aram,  Kurt,  author,  196 
Architects,  leading,  237 
Architectural  styles,  235 
Architecture,  Ancient,  238 

Modem,  235 

Army  and  Clergy,  60 

and  Navy  Burdens,  8 

and  Sports,  178 

Barracks,  61 

Cadets,  63 

,  Cases  of  Cruelty,  61 

Enrolment,  56 

Favouritism,  64 

Influences,  52 

Officers,  62 

Officers'  Pay,  64 

Organisation,  56 

Pay,  61 

Reserve,  61 

Service,  54 

Shooting,  61 

Stature,  57 

Strength,  56 

Veterans,  61 

Volunteers,  59 


Art  Centres,  228 
Art  CoUections,  234 
,  private,  235 

GaUeries,  234 

in  Berlin,  230 

in  Carlsnihe,  231 

in  Dresden,  231 

in  Dusseldorf,  231 

in  Germany,  227 

in  Munich,  229 

,  Old  Masters,  235 

Arts  and  Crafts  Schools,  235 
Art's  Efforts  for  a  Style.  10 
Artists,  leading,  229 
Artists'  revolt.  227 

Secession.  228 

Artists,  so-called,  231 
Athletic  Meetings.   180 
Attention  to  DetaU,  2 
Authors,   194 

Avenarius,  Ferdinand,  poet,  200 

Baden  and  Direct  Voting,  32 
Banking  Companies,  158 
Bankruptcy  cases,  113 
Banks  and  Agriculture.  158 

and  Commerce,  158 

Baths,  pubhc,  253 
Bavaria's  Constitution,  31 
Berg,  Leo,  critic,  224 
Berlin  the  Metropolis,  254 

Labour  Exchange,  143 

Berlin's  Poor,  124 
Bethmann-Hollweg,   Herr  Von, 

50 
Beyerlein,  Franz  Adam,  author, 

196 
Bierbaum,  Otto  Julius,  author, 

197 
Bleibtreu,  Carl,  author,  197 


270 


Index 


Blind  Schools,  78 
Boating  in  Germany,  178 
Bocklin,  Arnold,  artist,  229 
Bohlau,  Helene,  author,   198 
Bolsche,  Wilhelm,  author,  197 
Book  Production,  200 
Books  sold,  200 
Boxing  called  Brutal,  267 
Boy-Ed,  Ida,  author.  198 
Brahm,  Otto,  theatre  manager, 

224 
Britons  and  Games,  177 
Bruch,  Max,  composer,  213 
Budgets  of  States  and  Empire,  9 
Bulcke,  Karl,  author,  198 
Billow,  Freiin  Von,  author,  198 
Bungert,  August,  composer,  213 
Busch,  Wilhelm,  author,  196 

Capital  for  Enterprises,   158 
Carnival  in  Bavaria,  265 

time,  265 

Cases  in  Camera,  108 
Catholic  Activity.  100 

Church,  100 

Catholics  and  Classics.   91 
Catholics,  liberal,  101 
Cattle  in  Germany.    159 
Centre  Party.  42,  43 

Party's  Programme,  45 

Chamber  Music,  211 
Chancellor's  Responsibility.  21 
Chemical  Industry.   155 
Children's  Walking  Tours,  76 
Choice  of  Husband,  186 
Christianity's  Future,  245 
Christmas  Festivities.  263 
Churches,  the.  94 

Church  Organisation,  95 

Reform,  99 

Churches,  State,  95 
Church  Taxes,  95 
Cities.  Picturesque.  236 
City  Debts,  249 

Development.  248 

Enterprises,  250 

Government,  249 

Land  Purchase.  254 

Life,  its  influence,  259 


City  Plans,  254 

Rates  and  Taxes,  251 

Trading,  250 

Civil  Procedure,   112 
Class  Spirit,  89 
Classical  Schools,  82 
Cleanliness  in  the  Army,  55 
Clergy  and  Schools,  102 
Clerical  Career,  96 

Clerical  Desires  in  Politics,  45 

Coal  Mining,   153 

Collectivism  and  Individualism, 

243 
College  Life,  93 
Cologne  Unemployed,   140 
Comic  Papers,  207 
Commercial  Germans,   157 
Compulsory  Apprenticeship,  148 

Army  Service,  54 

Schooling.  81 

Sick  Insurance.   130 

Trade  Classes.   149 

Concert  Music,  211 
Conductors.  214 
Conquered  Provinces.  36 
Conrad,  Michael  Georg,  author, 

195 
Conservative  Party,  43 

Programme.  44 

Conservatives,  Free,  43 
Constituencies,  Antiquated,  39 
Constitution,  Articles,  22 
Constitutional  Changes,  29 
Constitution  of  Empire.  20 
Consumption  of  Alcohol,   169 
Continuation  Schools,  81 
Co-operative  Movement.  161 
Cricket  in  Germany.   180 
Criminal  Code.   104 

Courts.   105 

Offences.   105 

Cripples'  Homes,  78 
Crown  and  Crime,  106 
Crown  Prince,  18 

Prince  and  Sport.  174 

as  Carpenter.  19 

Culture.  Modern,  240 
Cuxhaven.  72 

Cycling  in  Germany.  180 


Index 


271 


Dahn,  Felix,  author,  197 
Dairy     Companies'     effect     on 

Drink,    170 
Dancing  in  Germany,  264 
Danish  Question,  37 
Deaconesses  in  Germany,  192 
Declaration  of  War,  25 
Dehmel,  Richard,  poet,  200 
Discipline  at  Play,  176 
Discipline's  effect  on  the  Nation, 

55 
Dispensaries  and  Hospitals,  120 
Dissenters,  94 
Doctorates,  92 
Domicile  in  Germany,    121 
Duels  in  the  Army.  266 
Duelling  Corps,  88 
Diisseldorf  Unemployed,  141 
Drama  in  Germany,  217 
Dramatic  critics,  217 

Revival,  218 

Taste,  218 

Dresden,  257 

Dress  of  Women.  185 
Drink  in  the  Country,  169 
Drunkards,  care  of,  168 
Drunkards'  Homes,   167 
Drunkards  in  Confinement,  167 
Drunkenness,   167 

Eastern  Provinces  and  Indus- 
try,  156 
Eastertide,  265 
Ebers.  Georg,  author,  196 
Edifices,  Modem,  236 
Educational  Efficiency,  6 

Expenditure,  74 

Frankness,  80 

Education,  Free,  73 

of  Women.   185 

.  Superior,  82 

Elberfeld  Poor  System.  116 
Electoral  Laws.  31.  32,  33 
Electrical  Industry,   154 
Elementary   School    Education, 

77 
Emperor  and  Art,  17,  228 

and  Berlin  Opera,  12 

and  Divine  Right,  14 


Emperor  and  Navy,  65 

and  Sport,  174 

and  Yachting.   179 

as  a  War  Lord.   11 

as  an  Artisan.  14 

on  His  Travels.  12 

signs  all  Laws,  25 

Emperor's  Devorion  to  Duty.  II 

Devotion  to  Exercise,  13 

Dogmatism,    15 

Energy,    11 

Good  Faith,  15 

Love  of  Power,  11 

Love  for  Soldiering,    16 

Popularity,   18 

Private  Life.   13 

Privy  Purse,   12 

Special  Train,  12 

Sports,   13 

Strong  Personality,  14 

Versatihty,   17 

Virtues  and  Demerits,  14 

Wholeheartedness,   13 

Yacht  "  Meteor,"  179 

Empire's  Enterprises,  9 

Rights  over  Railways,  28 

Employers'  Associations,   152 
Empress  as  a  Woman,  184 
Ernst,  Otto,  author.   197 
Eucken.     Rudolf,     philosopher, 

242 
Evening  Schools.  81 
Exercise,  174 
,  Compulsory,  176 

Factory  Workers,  150 
Farmers  and  Agriculture,  159 

Small,    159 

Farm  Labourers,  161 

Labourers'  Earnings,  161 

Federal  Council,  24 

Fencing  in  Germany,  181 
Festivities,  National,  263 
Feudal  Nobles'  Sway.  49 

Power.  34 

Fire  Insurance,  Compulsory.  135 
First  Offenders.  108 
Fleet  Manoeuvres,  72 
Flight  from  the  Church.  97 


272 


Index 


Folksongs  in  Germany,  208 
Fontane,  Theodor,  author,  196 
Football  in  Germany,  180 
Forest  and  State,  162 
Foresters,  their  Numbers,  164 

their  Training,  164 

the  Lower  Ranks  of,  165 

Forest  Land,  162 

Produce,  164 

Forestry,   162 

Forests  and  Climate,  166 
,  a  Treasure  of  the  Nation, 

166 

,  extent  of,  163 

Forest  trees,   162 

For    the    People,    not    by    the 

People,  48 
Fractions  of  Parties,  40 
Frankfort-on-Main,  256 
Frederick  the  Great  and  Banks, 

158 
Free  Cities,  255 

Conservative   Programme, 

44 

Theatre,  218 

Trade  Opinion,  160 

Frenssen,  Gustav,  author,  197 
Freytag,  Gustav,  author,  197 
Fulda,  Ludwig,  playwright,  223 

Gambling  in  Germany,  181 
Games  shown  by  Britons,  177 
Geestemiinde,  72 
German  Amusements,  182 

Comfort  and  Luxury,  8 

Empire's  Birth,  23 

Forestry,  162 

Housewife,   184 

Love  of  Nature,  75 

Germans  and  Customers'  Wishes, 

157 
Germans'  Determination,  7 

Forethought,  7 

Germans  Great  Walkers,  182 
Germany   a   Power   to   Reckon 

with,  7 
Germany's  Government,  38 
Goats  in  Germany,  159 
Golf  in  Germany,  181 


Gotz,  Hermann,  211 
Government  Income  from  Enter- 
prises, 9 
Grabbe,  Dietrich,  author,  198 
Greif,  Martin,  poet,  199 
Gymnastics  for  Children,  176 
Gymnastic  Societies,   175 

Tournaments,   175 

Haeckel,     Ernst,    philosopher, 
241 

Halbe,  Max,  playwright,  223 

Harden,  Maximilian,  journalist, 
205 

Harvest  Festivals,  266 

Hauptmann,  Gerhard,  195,  222 

Heidelberg,  257 

Hehgoland,  72 

Heyking,  Elizabeth  Von,  author, 
198 

Heyse,  Paul,  author,  198 

Higher  Officials  Obliging,  3 

Historical  Drama,  220 

Hoffmann,  Hans,  author,  196 

Holz,  Amo,  author,   195 

Home  Life,  262 

Horse-racing  in  Germany,   181 

Horses  in  Germany,   159 

Hospitals,  253 

House     Accommodation     and 
Drink,   173 

Housewives  in  Germany,  184 

Humperdinck,   Engelbert,  com- 
poser,   213 

Illustrated  Papers,  206 
Imperial  Chancellor,  21,  50 

Finances,  28 

Idea,  31 

Legislation,  23 

Parhament,  22 

Imports  and  Exports,  148 
Income     from     State     Forests, 

162 
Incomes,   153 
Industrial  Branches,   156 

Growth,   148 

Movement,   147 

Success,  causes  of,  148 


Index 


273 


Industrial  System,  147 
Industries,  Principal,  153 
Infirmity  Insurance,   126 
Influence  of  Prussia,  30 
Insane  Asylums,  253 
Instrumentalists,  214 
Insults  and  their  Punishment,  29 
Insurance,  GDnditions  of,  130 

Cost  of  Management,  132 

Exceptions,   128 

Extension  of,  127 

its  Immensity,   127 

of  Drunkards.  169 

Table,  129 

the  amounts  paid,  127 

State,   125 

V.  Pauperism,   125 

Insured,  Numbers  of,  127 
Interference  in  Private  Affairs,  2 
Intoxication,  167 
Introduction,   1 

Invalids,  Chronic,  128 
Inventiveness,   157 
Irresponsibihty  of  Officials,  52 

Jena  Glass  Works,  156 
Jewish  Church,    102 
Journalistic  DifiSculties,  206 
Journalists,  205 
Judges,   106 

Honorary,   114 

Judges'  Appointments,  114 

Salaries,   114 

Kaiser  Appoints  Ministers,  21 

Represents  Empire,  21 

Kaiser's  Powers,  21 

Kiel.  72 

Yachting.   178 

Kitchens,  Popular,  120 

Kleist,    Heinrich    Von,    author, 

198 
Koester,  Admiral  Von,  66 
Konigsberg,  256 

Labourers  and  Insurance,  137 
Labour  Exchanges,  142 

Exchange  scenes,  144 

i8— (ajQi) 


Land  Cultivation.  159 
Landowners'  Despotism,  39 
Law,  Civil,   110 

Codes,   104 

making  Institutions,  24 

the.  104 

Lectures  at  Universities.  90 
Legal  anomahes.  113 

Appeals.  112 

Costs.   Ill 

EquaUty.   107 

Fees,   107 

Punishments,  108 

Leipzig  Concerts,  211 

Unemployed.   140 

Liberal  Ideas  of  Minor  States,  31 
Liberals.  43 

Libraries.  PubHc.  200 
Liliencron.  Detlev  Von,  author, 

196 
Literature,  193 

at  a  Standstill,  10 

,  Unworthy,   193 

Litigation,  Delays  in,  1 1 1 
Lodgings  for  Workmen,  259 
Lords  in  Prussia,  34 
Lortzing,  Albert,  210 
Lyrical  Art,  199 

Machinery  Construction,  154 
Making  of  Treaties,  25 
Marriage,   186 

Married  Women's  Work,  262 
Martinmas,  266 
Matriculation  Day,  88 
Mayence  Unemployed,   141 
Mayors  of  Cities,  249 
Members  of  Parliament,  40 
Mendelssohn,  Arnold,  composer, 

213 
Merchant  Navy.  69 
Messel.  Alfred,  architect,  237 
Middle-class  Economy,  261 

in  Trade,  7 

Military  Compulsion,  28 

Cult,  3 

Liability,  54 

Mines,  State,    154 
Ministerial  Positions.  22 


274 


Index 


Ministers    and     Secretaries    of 
State,  51 

not    Members    of    Parlia- 
ment, 40 

Modem  Schools,  82 
Mortgage  Banks,  158 
Mortgages  on  Land,  158 
Motorboats  in  Germany,   179 
Motoring  in  Germany,  181 
Miinden,  256 
Municipal  Activities,  248 

Interests,  47 

Municipalities    and    Drunkards, 

168 

and  Unemployed,  141 

Music,  208 

in  Berlin,  211 

in  Transition  Stage,  10 

Musical  Composers,  209 

Conductors,  214 

Education,  209 

Festivals,  212 

Germany,  208 

Musicians,  Professional,  216 

National  Character,  5 

Nationahties,  36 

National  Liberals'  Programme,  45 

— —  Questions,  36 

Naval  Officers,  70 

Personnel,  69 

Ports,  71 

Recruiting,  69 

Training,  70 

Vessels,  68 

Volunteers,  70 

Navy,  the,  65 

Artificers,  69 

Development,  67 

League,  65 

Programme,  67 

Yards,  71 

"  Nevers,"  the,  121 
News  Agency,  205 
Newspaper  Circulation,  204 

Kiosks,  204 

Newspapers  and  the  Post,  207 

in  Germany,  202 

,  Leading,  203 


Newspapers,  Old,  202 

,  Socialist,  202 

New  Year's  Celebration,  264 
Nietzsche,     Friedrich,     philoso- 
pher, 240 
Nietzsche's  Works,  241 
Night  Shelters,  119 
North  German  Union,  23 
Novels,  193 
Nuns  in  Germany,  192 
Nuremberg,  258 
Nursing  Profession,  191 

Offensive  Tone  of  Officials,  52 
Officialdom,  47 

Satisfies  People,  53 

Official  Fidelity,  52 
Officials'  Divine  Right,  3 

Honesty,  38 

Influence  in  Pohtics,  35 

Loyalty,  52 

Officials,  Number  of,  47 

under  Control,  52 

Uninfluenced    by    Parlia- 
ment, 49 

Old- Age  Insurance,  126 
Open-air  Life,  183 
Opera  in  Dresden,  211 
Oratorical  Talent  Lacking,  41 
Orphans  and  Foundlings,    119 
Outdoor  Athletics,  180 
Out-of-Work  Insurance,  136 

Relief,  141 


Papers,  Comic,  207 
Paquet,  Alfons,  poet,  200 
Parents  and  Teachers,  78 
Parhament,  38 

a  Passive  Organ,  42 

Parliamentary  Government  un- 
known, 41 
Parliament  of  Empire,  27 
Party  Programmes,  44 
Pastors'  Nomination,  96 
Patents  applied  for,   157 
Paternal  Government,  4 
Patriotism  Encouraged,  4 
Payment  of  Members,  40 


Index 


275 


People  do  not  Govern,  41 
People's  Stage,  Free,  219 
Pessimism,  247 
Philharmonic  Society,  211 
Philosophers,  the  Older,  247 
Philosophy  and  Church,  240 

and  Rehgion,  243 

in  Germany,  240 

Philosophy's  Tasks,  245 
Physique  of  Germans,  175 
Pigs  in  Germany,  159 
Pig-iron  production,   154 
Piloty,  artist,  229 

Plays,  classical,  221 

Playwrights,  217 

Poets,   199 

Police  Word  is  Law,  3 

Polish  Question,  37 

Political  Development  Slow,  4 

Groups,  46 

Oratory,  41 

Unripeness,  38 

Politics  not  understood,  5 
Poor,  Cost  of,  122 

Deserving,   115 

Expenditure  on,  123 

in  Cities,   121 

in  Germany,   115 

Law,   115 

and  Drunkards,  169 

Principles,   124 

Wandering,   118 

Poors'  Doctors,  120 

Guardians,   116 

Population  of  Cities,  248 
Ports,  248 

Posen,  256 

Poultry  in  Germany,  159 
Powers  of  Federal  Council,  24 
Presidency  of  German  Union,  25 
Press  and  Statesmen,  204 

Bureau,  204 

Development,  203 

in  Germany,  202 

Periodical,  206 

Restrictions,  203 

Priests'  Popularity,  100 

Stipends,   101 

Princely  Houses  dying  out,  31 


Prisoners  and  Employment,  109 
Prison  Confinement,   110 
Prisoner's  Position,  106 
Problem  Novels,  194 
Prodigahty,  261 
Professional  Paupers,  121 
Professors,  85 
Profits  from  Forests,  163 
Prosperity  Ousts  Politics,  5 
Protection  and  Prices,  160 
Protestant  Pastor's  Stipends,  96 
Prussian  Administration,  34 
Prussia's  Mediaeval  Suffrage,  32, 
33 

Preponderance,  30 

Role,  31 

Public-houses,     their    numbers, 

169 
PubHc  Servants  placed  on  High 

Plane,  53 
Punishment  in  Schools,  76 

Raabe,  Wilhelm,  author,  195 
Radicals,  43 
Radical  Programme,  46 
Railway  riding,  267 
Real  Rulers  of  Germany,  20 
Reasons  of  Prosperity,  1 
Recruiting  Office,  57 
Recruits,  57 
Recruits'  Origin,  57 
Redistribution  of  Seats,  39 
Reger,  Max,  composer,  213 
Reichstag     Dissolved     Peremp- 
torily, 41 
Reigning  Princes,  19 
Relief  Systems  for  Unemployed, 

142 
Religious  Camps,  94 

Indifference,  98 

Life.  246 

Pessimism,  8 

Rothenburg-ob-der-Tauber,  257 
Rowing  in  Germany,  178 

Sailing  in  Germany,  179 
Satisfaction  with  Official  System, 

53 
Savings  Banks,  l53 


276 


Index 


Saxony's  Progress,  32 
Scharwenka,    Philip,    composer, 

213 
Schiemann,   Professor,   205 
Schlaf,  Johannes,  author,  195 
Schoneberg    and    Unemployed, 

141 
School  Attendance,  76 

Buildings,  79 

Dentists  and  Doctors,  78 

Discipline,  75 

Fees,  83 

Hours,  83 

Instruction,  77 

Punishments,  76 

Syllabus,  75 

Teachers,  79 

Schools  and  Temperance,  171 

Commercial,  81 

Denominational,  73 

in  Forests,  79 

in  Germany,  73 

Middle.  82 

Schiicking,  Levin,  poet,  199 
Schuler,  Gustav,  poet,   199 
Scientific  Education,  90 

Learning,  8 

Sculptors,  Leading,  232 
Sculpture  in  Berlin,  232 

in  Dresden,   232 

in  Germany,  232 

in  Munich,  233 

Seidel,  Heinrich,  author,  196 
Sentiment  and  Marriage,   186 
Service  in  Army,  54 
Shakespeare  in  Germany,  218 
Sheep  in  Germany,  159 
Shooting  in  Germany,  182 
Shop  Hours  Regulation,  253 
Sick  Benefits,   132 

Funds,   132 

Insurances,  number  of,  131 

Singers  in  Germany,  214 
Singing  in  Germany,  208 
Skating  in  Germany,  181 
Social  Problems,  8 
Socialists  and  Church,  97 

Crushed  by  Suffrage  Laws, 

33 


Socialists  Excluded  from  Offices, 

49 
Socialists'  Forward  March,  42 

Power,  42 

Programme,  46 

Society  v.  Family,  261 
Soldier  Respected,  55 
Soldiers  as  Officials,  52 
Soldiers'  Education,  58 
Sonneberg,  257 

Sorma,  Agnes,  actress,  225 
Specialisation  and  Caste,  6 
Spielhagen,     Friedrich,    drama- 
tist,   224 
Sport  and  National  Defence,  174 

for  Women,  186 

in  Germany,  174 

in  the  Army,  178 

State  and  Unemployed,  137 

Control,  47 

Divisions,  30 

Enterprises,  47 

Guardianship,  8 

Insurance,   125 

Production,  Dangers  of,  48 

States  and  Industries,  9 

:  Their  Position,  30 

Strassburg     and     Unemployed, 

139 
Strauss,  Richard,  composer,  212 
Student  Life.  87 
Students,  86 

Students'  Restrictions,  89 
Study,  Course  of,  88 

Duration  of,  91 

Sudermann,    Hermann,   author, 

195 
Suffrage  in  Various  States,  31, 
32,   33 

Law  of  Empire,  39 

Summer  Colonies,   183 
Supplies  in  Reichstag.  41 
Swimming  in  Germany,  181 

Tact  Lacking,  7 
Tariff  Laws,  160 
Taxable  property,   148 
Taxation  Murmurs,  9 
Teachers'  Salaries,  79 


Index 


277 


Technical  High  Schools,  87 
Temperance,   167 

and  Schools,   171 

and  the  Church.  171 

Societies,   172 

Templars,   172 

Territory  of  German  Empire,  23 
Theatre,  a  Model,  221 

a  State,  220 

Theatres,  Municipal,  220 
Theatrical  Centre,  Berlin  a,  219 
Theological  Philosophers,  244 
Thrift  among  Workers,  153 

in  Germany,  267 

Tidiness  in  Germany,  55 
Trades  Unions,  151 
and    Drunkenness, 

170 

Unionists'    Temperance, 

170 

Tram  Lines,  254 

Treaties,  25 

Tulle  Indust^>^    155 

Ubiquity  of  the  PoHce,  2 
Ulm,  258 

Unearned  Increment,  254 
Unemployed  Insurance,  136 
in  Cologne,  140 

in  Leipzig,  140 

in  Mayence,  141 

in  Schoneberg,  141 

in  Strassburg,   139 

Unemployment  among  Veterans, 

144 

Difficulties,  138 

in  Baden,    145 

in  Bavaria,  144 

in  Prussia,  145 

in  Trades,  146 

Uniform's  Popularity,  54 
Universal  Manhood  Suffrage,  39 
Universities,   86 

University  Education,  85 

Faculties,  86 

Upper  House  in  Prussia,  34 

Veterans  and  Unemployment, 
144 


Veterans  of  Army,  61 
Virihty  of  the  Germans,  2 
Vocahsts,  214 

their  Origin,  215 

Volunteers  in  Army,  58 

one-year,  59 

Voss,  Richard,  dramatist. 


224 


Votes  of  Federal  Councillors,  24 


Wages  and  Hours,  149 
Wagner,  Richard,  210 

Siegfried,  composer,  213 

Walking  in  Germany,  182 
WaUot,  Paul,  architect,  237 
Wealth,  distribution  of,  248 
Wedekind,     Frank,     dramatist, 

224 
Weimar,  257 
Whitsuntide,  266 
Wildenbruch,  Ernst  Von,  author, 

196 
Wildenbruch,  playwright,  223 
Wilhelmshafen,  71 
Wilham  II  as  Emperor,  11 

as  European  Arbiter,  11 

Witnesses'  Payment,  112 
Worn.  Julius,  poet,  199 
Woman  and  Agriculture,  190 

and  Business,  187 

and  the  Law,  188 

and  Trade.  190 

,  Higher  Education,  191 

Obhged  to  Work,  190 

Woman's  Accomplishments,  186 

Inferiority,   186 

Life,   184 

Organisations,   188 

Position,   184 

Women  and  Liberal  Profesaons, 
190 

Authors,  198 

Doctors,  190 

Guardians,  117 

in  Factories,   190 

Lawyers,  190 

,  Society     for     Instruction 

of,   191 

Students.  87 


C5f  TH£ 


278 


Index 


Women's  Dignity,   187 

Education,   185 

Prisons,   110 

Property,   187 

Qualities,   184 

Restrictions,   187 

Societies,   189 

— —  Wages,   191 

Work  Colonies,    118 

"  Work  "  Houses,  121 

Workers  and  Higher  Education, 

92 
Workers  and  the  Church,  97 

and  Unemployment,   138 


Workers  and  Vacations,  152     ' 

seem  to  be  another  race,  6 

Workers'  Books,  152 

Discipline,   149 

Life,  153 

Welfare,   152 

Working  Classes,  262 

Class's  Strivings,  5 

Workmen  and  Gymnastics,  175 

Foreign,   150 

Workmen's  Insurance,   125 

Yachting  in  Germany,  178 
Youth  of  Germany,  73 


THE   END 


Press  of  Isaac  Pitman  &  Sons,  Bath,  England. 
(3391) 


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